Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University
The Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University is published by the Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. The main aim of this journal is to publish the original research findings in the field of Plant Science, Animal Science, Aquaculture, Veterinary Science, Forestry, Environmental Science, and Social Science.
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Selection of Lentil Genotypes with Stable Yield and Protein Content across Diverse Environments
Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) is a cool-season crop, rich in protein, dietary fiber, and micronutrients like iron, zinc and selenium with low fat. The effect of environment, genotypes and their interaction are important in determining yield and nutritional content of a crop. This study was designed to investigate the effects of genotype and environmental interaction on yield and grain protein stability in twelve lentil genotypes. Experiment was conducted at three diverse environments of Khajura (Banke), Khumaltar (Lalitpur) and Bijayanagar (Jumla) during winter season of 2020/21 using alpha lattice design with two replications. Data were recorded for days to flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, hundred seed weight, and grain yield. Protein content was analyzed by Kjeldahl method. The stability and genotype by environment interaction were examined with AMMI and GGE biplot methods. Results showed that yield and protein content are influenced by all of genotype, environment and genotype by environment interaction. Environment is identified as the leading factor in causing yield variation. Genotype X2011S-183-11 yielded (983 kg/ha) most stably of all among test environments in the panel of genotypes, although environment specific adaptation of genotypes to could be noted owing to their higher marginal yield at certain environment. The highest protein content was observed in the genotype X2011S-223-6 (25.0%) with better specific adaptation to Vijayanagar, Jumla while most stable expression of grain protein was found in genotype X2011S-125-23 (23.6%) across test environments. The tested genotypes can serve as valuable resource, in lentil improvement program, to breed for high and stable yield and grain protein content.
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Evaluation of Ratoon Management Practices for Cane Yield and Juice Quality of Sugarcane Ratoon
Sugarcane is an important industrial crop in Nepal. Low plant population in ratoon crops is a major constraint that reduces cane number and lowers yield. An experiment was conducted in Nawalparasi (west) to evaluate effect of different ratoon management strategies on cane yield and juice quality of sugarcane. A two-factor randomized complete block design was employed to evaluate two fertilizer placement methods (band placement and broadcasting) in combination with seven ratoon management practices: control (M1), earthing up (M2), stubble shaving (M3), M2 + M3 (M4), M4 + off-barring (M5), trash mulching (M6), and M5 + M6+ Trichoderma (M7), replicated thrice. Results showed non-significant effect of both the factors on cane length, cane diameter, millable canes and single cane weight. Interaction effect was significant on millable canes and cane yield where combined ratoon management practices (M7) along with band placement of fertilizers recorded the highest value. Major quality traits remain unaffected due to treatments. Sugar yield (5.88 t/ha) from band placement was superior to broadcasting. Also, combined ratoon management practices (M7) resulted the highest sugar yield (6.45 t/ha) while being at par with M6 and M5. Those findings suggested integrated ratoon management strategies for better cane yield and juice quality.
Evaluation of Agronomic Performance of Maize Varieties Under Spring Season in Kailali, Nepal
Maize (Zea mays L.) is a key cereal crop for food, feed, and industry, but its productivity in Nepal remains low compared to the global average. In the western Terai, yield of maize is constrained by the limited use of adapted hybrids and the lack of local evaluation. A field experiment was carried out from February to August 2024, in Kailali, Nepal, to evaluate the agronomic performance of spring maize varieties and identify suitable high-yielding options. The experiment was laid in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications and seven treatments: RH-6, RH-10, RH-12, RH-16, CAH-1511, Arun-2 (OPV check), and Rajkumar (hybrid check). The plot size was 3 m × 3 m with 60 cm × 25 cm plant spacing, and a fertilizer dose of 150:60:60 :: N:P₂O₅:K₂O kg ha⁻¹ along with 4 t ha⁻¹ poultry manure was applied with standard agronomic practices. Data on phenology, growth, yield attributes, and yield were recorded from ten randomly selected plants per plot. Analysis was performed using ANOVA for RCBD and mean separation using Fisher’s LSD at 5% level, along with Pearson correlation analysis. Significant varietal differences were observed for plant height, time to tasseling and silking, length and weight of cob, kernel rows per cob, kernels per row, thousand kernel weight, grain yield, stover yield, biological yield, and harvest index. RH-10 recorded the highest test weight (353.26 g), while Rajkumar had the heaviest cobs (301.77 g). Grain yield was found to be highly and positively correlated with the number of kernel rows per cob, cob weight without husk, length of cob without husk, test weight, biological yield, and harvest index. CAH-1511 produced the highest grain yield (7.69 t ha-¹) and benefit-cost ratio (2.10), which was followed by RH-10. Overall, CAH-1511 and RH-10 exhibited superior agronomic performance, better yield components, and higher economic returns. Therefore, these varieties are recommended for spring maize cultivation in Kailali under similar agro-ecological conditions.
Precision Nitrogen Management for Rice in Mid-Hills of Nepal: Productivity, Profitability and Nitrogen Use Efficiency
Nepalese farmers often apply generalized nitrogen (N) recommendations that overlook fieldspecific conditions, leading to excessive N use, higher costs, and reduced efficiency. This study evaluated the effectiveness of precision N management tools on rice yield, economic returns, and nitrogen use efficiency in the mid-hills of Nepal. A field trial was conducted during the 2024 monsoon season in the mid-hills of Nepal using a Randomized Complete Block Design with seven treatments and three replications. The treatment included Control (N0 – 0 kg N ha-1), Farmers' Fertilizer Practice (FFP- 138 kg N ha-1), National Recommendation (NR- 100 kg N ha-1), Leaf Color Chart (LCC- 61.33 kg N ha-1), Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD- 33.33 kg N ha-1) meter, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) based Green Seeker (58.33 kg N ha-1), and Nutrient Expert (NE- 113.5 kg N ha-1) model. Grain yield, economic performance, partial factor productivity of Nitrogen (PFPN), and Agronomic Nitrogen use efficiency (ANUE) were measured and analyzed using Analysis of Variance and DMRT at a 5% significance level. All the nitrogen-fertilized treatments significantly outperformed the control. The NE treatment produced the highest grain yield (6.79 Mt ha-1), statistically at par with NR (6.65 Mt ha-1). The NE treatment provided the highest gross returns (NRs 260,481.4 ha-1), net return (NRs 115,531.27 ha-1), and benefit-cost ratio (1.63). However, the SPAD meter-based treatment, which applied the least amount of nitrogen (33.33 kg ha-1), achieved the highest PFPN (137.57 kg grain kg-1 N) and ANUE (49.50 kg yield increase kg-1 N), significantly surpassing all other treatments, including the FFP, which recorded the lowest efficiency. The findings demonstrated that real-time, site-specific precision nitrogen management tools, particularly NE and sensor-based approaches like SPAD meter, enhance productivity, profitability, and nitrogen use efficiency. Further multi-season and multi-location studies are recommended to validate and refine these precision management tools for wider adoption across diverse agro-ecological regions of Nepal.
Effect of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria and Phosphorus Sources on Soil Phosphorus Availability and Maize Yield
Phosphorus is an important nutrient for maize; however, its availability in soil may be restricted due to binding to clay surfaces and precipitation with cations such as aluminium and iron at low pH and calcium and magnesium at high pH, ultimately affecting maize growth, development and yield. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria helps to improve soil phosphorus availability by transforming insoluble phosphorus to plant-available forms, thereby supporting improved crop growth and yield. To address this, a field experiment was conducted in Taukhel, Lalitpur, Nepal following a split-plot design with phosphate solubilizing bacteria inoculation and noninoculation as the main plot factor and five phosphorus sources: control, rock phosphate, single super phosphate, bone meal and poultry manure as sub-plot factors, each replicated three times. Results showed no significant interaction between phosphate solubilizing bacteria and phosphorus sources. However, inoculation of phosphate solubilizing bacteria significantly increased thousand grain weight, grain yield, stover yield and soil available phosphorus by 2.1%, 11.6%, 9.7% and 13.4% respectively, compared with no inoculation. Similarly, among phosphorus sources, plots treated with poultry manure improved plant height, number of leaves, ear length, number of kernels per row, thousand grain weight, grain yield, stover yield and soil available phosphorus by 14.6%, 14.9%, 19.5%, 16.6%, 7.3%, 34.2%, 26.3% and 46.1% respectively, compared to control. The results of our study suggests that maize seed inoculation with phosphate solubilizing bacteria improved maize yield and soil available phosphorus in comparison to non-inoculated treatments. However, additional research is essential to understand combined effects of phosphate solubilizing bacteria with organic and inorganic fertilizers on soil nutrient availability and crop productivity.
Effect of Different Weed Management Practices on Rainy Season Maize Under Stale Seedbed Condition at Puranchur, Kaski
A field experiment was conducted at Puranchaur, Kaski during April to August, 2023 to evaluate the effect of different weed management practices on weed dynamics and yield of maize. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five weed management practices (manual weeding, farmers practice, sunhemp-coculture, tembotrione, and atrazine fb tembotrione) and three replications. The cultivar used was Rampur Hybrid 10. Data was recorded and analyzed using R-Studio. The experimental findings indicated that the plant height (258.25) and Leaf Area Index (LAI) (3.90) of maize was highest in Farmers` practices. Atrazine followed by Tembotrione at 21 days after sowing was found most effective in lowering weed density and weed dry weight. Yield (5720.59 kg/ha) and yield attributing character was also found higher in Atrazine followed by Tembotrione among all weed management practices. Results revealed that no weed management in Maize in rainy season under stale seedbed at Puranchaur, Kaski leads to reduction of yield by 40.50%.
Comparative Study of Deep-Bedded Pack Compost Relative to Organic and Inorganic Amendments for Enhancing Growth and Productivity of Aman Rice in Bangladesh
The deep bedded pack (DBP) system is a modern loose housing method for dairy cows that enhances comfort by providing an open-bedded area for resting and exercise. In DBP, dung and urine are mixed with bedding materials, which is cultivated 1–3 times daily. DBP compost, derived from this system, serves as an organic manure. This study evaluated the effect of DBP compost on Aman rice production. A study was initiated in Satkhira, Bangladesh, from 1st June 2020 to 31st July 2021 with five treatments as T1: Control (no fertilizer), T2: Chemical fertilizer (CF) as Recommended Dose (RD), T3: Biochar + RD, T4: DBP Compost + RD, and T5: DBP Compost + Biochar + RD. The DBP compost had 66.47% moisture, pH 8.30, organic carbon 21.89%, total nitrogen 1.83%, C:N 13.68, phosphorus 0.29%, potassium 1.57%, and sulfur 0.3%. Most yield parameters differed significantly (p<0.01) among treatments, except panicle length and grains per panicle. Biomass yield, grain yield, test weight, and percent filled grains were highest in T5, though not significantly different from T4. Overall, DBP compost, whether used alone or combined with biochar, proved more effective than chemical fertilizer in enhancing the growth and yield of Aman rice.
Effect of Different Organic Manures on the Growth, Yield, and Quality of Radish in Inner Terai, Nepal
A field experiment was conducted from December 2021 to February 2022 at Marin Rural Municipality, Sindhuli, Nepal to evaluate the effect of various organic manures on growth, yield, and quality of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) cv. ‘Mino Early’. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with seven treatments and three replications. Organic manures (farmyard manure, poultry manure, pig manure, vermicompost, mustard oil cake and packaged organic manure) were applied on a nitrogen-equivalent basis to ensure uniform nutrient supply across treatments along with control. Data were collected on growth parameters, yield parameters, quality parameters, weed density were analyzed using ANOVA. The results revealed significant variation among the treatments. Poultry manure significantly (p≤0.05) improved most parameters: it produced the earliest germination (6.0 days), the highest leaf length at 40 DAS (26.17cm), the maximum root length (31.08 cm) and root diameter (3.06 cm), the greatest fresh root weight per plant (148.2 g) and the highest net plot yield (8.97 kg/ plot). Poultry manure also gave the largest portion of marketable roots (80.25%), the lowest forked roots (19.75%), highest total soluble solids (5°Brix), and the greatest weed suppression efficiency (65.3%) due to rapid canopy development. Mustard oil cake ranked second for several traits. In contrast, control plots recorded the lowest growth and yield parameters. Soil analysis after harvest showed that poultry manure increased soil organic matter to 2.45%, total Nitrogen to 0.13 %, available P to 68.4 kg/ha, and available K to 178.6 kg/ha, the highest among treatments. The findings of this study concluded that poultry manure is an efficient organic nutrient supplement for enhancing radish productivity and quality in the Inner Terai region of Nepal.
Comparative Analysis of Organic Manures to Chemical Fertilizers on the Growth and Yield of Okra at Sunsari, Nepal
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), a warm-season crop of the Malvaceae family, is widely cultivated in the tropical and subtropical regions of Nepal. Organic manure plays an important role in improving its growth and yield; however, optimal application rates remain insufficiently studied in the Terai region of Eastern Nepal. A field experiment was conducted from February to April 2025 in Inaruwa-3, Sakhuwagachhi, Sunsari to evaluate the effects of different organic manures on the growth and yield of okra variety NS-864. The experiment was arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with seven treatments: poultry manure, vermicompost, farmyard manure (FYM), goat manure, mustard oil cake, , and a control, each replicated three times. Data were collected from five randomly selected plants per plot. Early seed germination (90%) was recorded at 11 days after sowing in goat manure and FYM treatments. Among organic sources, poultry manure significantly enhanced growth and yield attributes, producing the highest number of primary branches and average pod weight, second only to NPK. FYM showed moderate performance, while vermicompost and mustard oil cake were less effective. The control produced the lowest yield. Overall, poultry manure proved to be the most effective organic alternative for sustainable okra production under Eastern Nepal conditions.
Effect of Different Doses of Nitrogen and Boron on Growth, Yield and Post-Harvest Quality of Broccoli at Rampur, Chitwan
A field experiment was conducted at Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan from October 2022 to February 2023 to know the effect of nitrogen and boron on growth, yield, and quality of the Calabrese Variety of broccoli. Four doses of nitrogen as 100, 140, 180, and 220 kg/ha and three doses of boron 1, 1.5, and 2 kg/ha consisting of twelve treatments were applied in RCBD with three replications. Significantly the highest vegetative growth was recorded at 220 kg/ha nitrogen and 2 kg/ha boron dose which was statistically similar to 180 kg/ha nitrogen and 1.5 kg/ha boron dose respectively. The yield of Calabrese broccoli was significantly increased by the increasing rate of N and B application. The highest yield of 14.33 mt/ha was recorded at 220 kg/ha nitrogen which was statistically similar to 180 kg/ha nitrogen dose. Similarly, the highest yield (13.5 mt/ha) of Calabrese broccoli was recorded at 2 kg/ ha boron which was statistically at par to 1.5 kg/ha boron dose. The quality parameters were also found significantly higher at higher doses of nitrogen and boron. The interaction effect of N and B on growth, yield, and quality was found non-significant under the different doses of nitrogen and boron. Nitrogen doses of 180 kg/ha and boron dose of 1.5 kg/ha is recommended for farmers' practice in the Chitwan conditions.
Effect of Dual Release Antifungal Pad on Postharvest Quality and Shelf Life of Acid Lime under Ambient Storage Conditions
Acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Christm.) is an important commercial citrus fruit crop in Nepal next to mandarin. It is a non-climacteric and perishable type, having a short shelf life, and quality deteriorates rapidly after harvest. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of sulfur dioxide (SO2) generating antifungal pads containing different concentrations of sodium metabisulfite on the postharvest quality and storage life of acid lime, and to identify the most suitable antifungal pad dose for storage. Altogether, nine treatments of SO2 pads (0.00, 1.25, 2.50, 3.75, 5.00, 6.25, 7.50, 8.75, and 10.00 g) were evaluated in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Fruits of uniform size (30-40 g) were packaged at modified atmospheric condition and stored at 32±2oC with 75±5% relative humidity. Physicochemical parameters were assessed at 1, 8, 15, 22, and 29 days after storage (DAS). Titratable acidity (TA) and total soluble solids (TSS) declined at higher doses (above 7.50 g). Results revealed that SO2 pad doses ranging from 2.5 g to 3.75 g were the most effective to reduce physiological weight loss (6.21% and 6.97%, respectively). Juice recovery percentage was highest at 3.75 g (24.70%) and 2.50 g (24.4%), while the lowest was observed at 10.00 g SO2. The highest freshness (4.65 score), and longest shelf life (33.80 days) of the acid lime fruits were observed at 2.50 g SO2 dose. Overall, lower SO2 doses (2.5-3.75 g) maintained postharvest quality and extended the shelf life of acid lime approximately by 14 days under ambient storage conditions.
Evaluating Maize Varietal Susceptibility and Insecticide Efficacy against Fall Armyworm
The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is one of the most destructive polyphagous pests, causing significant reductions in maize yield as its larvae feed on developing maize leaves and cobs. Field experiments were conducted to assess the extent of damage and yield loss caused by fall armyworm infestation in maize, following a randomized complete block design with three replications at the National Maize Research Program in Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal, during the spring season of 2023. Maize varieties such as Rampur Hybrid (RH)-10, RH-12, RH-4, RH-6, TX-369, Arun-2, ZM-401, ZM-627, BGBY POP, and Rampur Composite were used as test varieties (first factor). Pest control conditions (spray and non-spray) served as the second factor. Spray plots were treated with spinosad 45% EC, while non-spray plots received only water spray. Both were applied at 10-day intervals from the V4 stage of maize. Arun-2 was the most susceptible to fall armyworm damage, resulting in a higher pest infestation. Meanwhile, RH-12 exhibited a lower plant infestation. Quantitative yield loss increased with fall armyworm infestation, ranging from 5.54% to 34.48% across maize varieties. The highest yield loss was observed in the open-pollinated variety: Arun-2 (34.48%), followed by ZM-627 (20.73%) and BGBY POP (14.85%). The lowest yield loss of 5.54% occurred in RH-12. Application of spinosad 45% EC to RH-12 resulted in increased yield and reduced susceptibility to fall armyworm. These findings suggest that cultivating relatively tolerant maize varieties such as RH-12, combined with appropriate insecticide application, can reduce fall armyworm infestation and yield loss, thereby improving maize productivity and supporting sustainable pest management strategies.
Spatial Occurrence and Morphological Colony Variability of Bipolaris sorokiniana Isolates Causing Spot Blotch of Wheat in Nepal
Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoem. is an important pathogen causing spot blotch in wheat. A study was conducted to explore the occurrence and morphological colony variability of B. sorokiniana. A total of 36 isolates from single spore were maintained from the disease sample collected from different wheat growing regions of Nepal. Among them, 27 isolates were from terai region; 7 were from mid hill region and 2 were from high hill region. Radial mycelia growth of all the isolates differed significantly at different days after incubation (DAI). Mean colony diameter at 2 DAI, 4 DAI, 6 DAI and 8 DAI were 2.70 cm, 5.54 cm, 7.82 cm and 8.68 cm respectively. Radial mycelia growth ranged from 7.23 cm to 9 cm after 8 days of incubation. Based on colony color, isolates were categorized into 5 groups. Dull/white greenish black had maximum frequency (33.3%) and white colony had minimum frequency (5.5%). Based on colony growth behavior, 41.6% isolates were suppressed growth; 38.8% were fluffy growth and 19.4% were cottony growth. Variability was also observed in colony growth margin where 66.6% isolates were having regular colony margin and 33.3% isolates were having irregular colony margin. Diverse spatial occurrence and high morphological colony variation suggests that isolates of B. sorokiniana causing spot blotch disease might possess different level of virulence profile.
Estimation of Maize Import Demand Function in Nepal: An ARDL-ECM Approach
This study examined the long-run and short-run determinants of maize import behavior in Nepal, where maize is the second most imported cereal after rice. An error correction version of Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model was employed using 28 years of time series data (1997-2024) collected from secondary sources. The stationarity of variables was tested using Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test, Phillips-Perron (PP) and Kwiatkoski-Phillips-Schmidt- Shin (KPSS) tests, confirming integration at either I (0) or I (1). The Bounds test verified the existence of long-run relationships among the variables (F=11.18, p<0.01). The error correction term (ECTt-1=-1.038) was negative and significant (p=0.0012), indicating rapid adjustment toward long-run equilibrium. The results revealed that remittance inflow (p<0.1), import price of substitute commodity rice (p<0.05) and consumer price inflation (p<0.01) significantly influenced maize imports in long-run, all exhibiting positive relationships. In the short-run, remittance inflow (p<0.01), price of substitute goods (p<0.1) and consumer price inflation (p<0.05) affected maize imports. However, unlike the long-run effect, increased remittance inflows were associated with a decrease in maize imports in the short-run, suggesting a temporary shift in consumer preference towards other commodities. Diagnostic tests confirm normality (Jerque-Bera Statistic X2=0.346, p>0.05 & Shapiro-wilk statistic w=0.975, p>0.05), absence of autocorrelation (Breusch-Godfrey LM=3.378, p>0.05) and heteroskedasticity (Studentized Bruesch-pagan BP= 17.198, p>0.05), and no model misspecification (D’Agostino skewness test statistic=2.267, z=0.658, p>0.05); thereby validating the robustness and reliability of model. The findings emphasize strengthening domestic maize production, promoting productive use of remittances, and maintaining stable inflation to reduce maize import dependency for policy implications.
The Agrarian Paradox: An Impact of Foreign Labour Migration and Remittances on Agricultural Activities in Mahottari, Nepal
Foreign labour migration has emerged as a significant socioeconomic phenomenon in Nepal, contributing substantially to the national economy through remittance inflows while also causing labour shortage and serious challenges for the sustainability and productivity of the agricultural sector. This study investigates the effects of foreign labour migration and remittances on agricultural activities in Bardibas Municipality. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from migrant household heads and key informants. For quantitative data, respondents were selected using simple random sampling, whereas qualitative respondents were selected purposively. Quantitative data were analyzed in SPSS, and qualitative data were transcribed, thematically categorized, interpreted, and integrated with the quantitative findings. In 2024, the study found that labour migration is driven by both unemployment and sociopsychological motivations, such as the pursuit of social prestige, and that 88% of migrants prefer to migrate to GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) nations. Although 88.3% of migrant households send remittances home through formal banking channels, these remittances have contributed to the “Lost Labour Effect.” Consequently, the agricultural sector is experiencing women’s empowerment through the “Feminization of Agriculture and Workload Pressure.” Female workload pressure refers to the increased labour burden on women, particularly in preparing inputs. On the positive side, remittance receipts have enabled the adoption of hybrid seeds (90.6%) and irrigation systems (93.8%) by overcoming liquidity constraints. More than three-fourths of returned migrants were engaged in subsistence farming, suggesting a limited reintegration effect. Overall, the findings indicate that remittances primarily function as a form of economic security or insurance for households. However, these remittances have yet to contribute to structural transformation through capital formation in the agricultural sector, thereby ensuring enhanced growth and development in rural Nepal.
Determinants of Access to Agricultural Subsidy and Perceived Subsidy Utilization Behavior in Sindhuli District, Nepal
Agricultural input subsidies (AIS) are considered an important tool for improving farm productivity and enhancing food security. Farmers’ perception influences participation, adoption behavior, and overall program outcomes. To identify the determinants of access to subsidy and the perceived subsidy utilization index, cross-sectional research was conducted at three local levels of Sindhuli Marin, Kamalmai, and Hariharpur Gadhi from September to December 2025. A total of 20 AIS beneficiaries and 20 non-beneficiaries were surveyed using a pretested interview schedule from each local level to comprise the total randomly selected sample of 120 households. Data analysis was done using a probit model to identify the determinants of access to subsidy and utilization behavior, and EFA, CFA, and regression techniques. Sociodemographic characteristics like the gender (β= -1.227, p=0.022) of the household head and family type (β=1.098, p=0.011) have a significant influence on access to subsidy. Institutional variables such as farmer visits to the extension office (β=-1.423, p=0.000), membership in cooperatives (β=0.852, p=0.032), and membership in farmers' groups (β=0.639, p=0.092) have a positive and significant influence on receiving subsidies. Behavioral variables derived from the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), such as attitude and subjective norms, have a positive and significant influence on receiving a subsidy. The explanatory variable, attitude toward subsidy effectiveness and governance, and perceived internal control, was a statistically significant determinant of subsidy utilization behavior. This study concludes that farmers' perception of subsidy differs among the subsidy receivers and non-receivers, and behavioral factors also determine the subsidy use. Policymakers should focus on easing the subsidy-receiving process and information dissemination, reducing complex paperwork to make the subsidy system more effective and ensure wider participation.
Multidimensional Livelihood Vulnerability and Household Food Security: A Comparative Analysis of Urban and Peri-Urban Areas of Nepal
Urban and peri-urban food security has received wide attention in recent years in the context of rapidly growing internal migration and urbanization in Nepal. This study was conducted to analyze the vulnerability to food insecurity in urban and peri-urban households of Nepal using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) framework and the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). Using a cross-sectional study design, data and information were collected from 435 households during January to March 2023, out of which 288 households were from different clusters of urban areas and 147 households from peri-urban areas of Kathmandu, Dhanusha, and Banke districts. The study found that overall livelihood vulnerability was higher in urban households (LVI = 0.401) than in peri-urban households (LVI = 0.282). Food insecurity, weak social networks, and limited livelihood diversification primarily drove urban vulnerability. Regarding the food security-related component, peri-urban households demonstrated relatively better food sufficiency. The association between LVI and food security categories was statistically significant in relation to urban and peri-urban households, indicating that higher vulnerability corresponds with severe food insecurity. The findings concluded that the public policy and programs need to focus on a location-specific and multidimensional approach to improve food security status and livelihood vulnerability.
Adoption of Improved Wheat Varieties in Nawalparasi West District, Nepal
The adoption of improved wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties is crucial for enhancing productivity and ensuring food security in Nepal. The study aimed to examine the adoption of improved wheat varieties in Nawalparasi West district, Nepal. It focused on adoption patterns, the factors influencing adoption, and the reasons for farmers’ decisions to adopt or not adopt these varieties. Additionally, the study explored farmers’ information sources, perceptions, and support needs. Primary data were collected in 2025 from 120 randomly selected farmers using a pretested semi-structured interview schedule. The results reveal that adoption of improved wheat varieties was positively influenced by male-headed households, commercial nature of production, and access to input markets. A negative association with adoption was observed for education and access to output markets. The varieties Vijay and Bhrikuti were adopted for longer periods and comparatively over larger farm areas. Farmers who did not adopt improved varieties reported unfamiliarity with benefits and high seed costs as the main reasons for nonadoption. Adopters highlighted high yield, superior grain quality, and disease/pest resistance as the reasons for adoption. Major challenges in the adoption of improved varieties were limited access to fertilizers and irrigation, and insufficient technical knowledge of recommended production practices. Fellow farmers and farmer groups or cooperatives were the major sources of information on improved varieties. Farmers expressed positive perceptions regarding yield, grain quality, and pest/disease resistance, and emphasized the need for support on resources and subsidies. Thus, strengthening access to input markets and fostering a shift toward commercial oriented production systems are crucial for accelerating the adoption of improved varieties.
Determinants of Technical Efficiency in Rice Production: Evidence from Chitwan, Nepal
This study aims to investigate the level of technical inefficiency as well as determine the attributes related to farmers that significantly influence the inefficiency in rice production. Multistage sampling procedure was employed to select the respondents from the primary rice cultivating areas. The data were collected through face-to-face interview with randomly selected 150 respondents from sampling frame through deployment of semi-structured questionnaire. One step stochastic frontier modelling was employed to measure the technical inefficiency, which also simultaneously estimate the inefficiency model. The estimation of the parameters in production function revealed that 1% increase in area, human labor and working capital, increases output by 0.037, 0.189, and 0.421, % respectively. The return to scale was calculated 0.647, implying diminishing return. The average technical efficiency was 82.30%, indicating, on average, farmers could increase the output by 17.70%, with the existing technologies by following best practices. The results from the inefficiency model showed that major source of household income, education, experience, cooperative membership and extension services negatively and significantly influence the inefficiency. The empirical evidences provide guidance to policy makers to target the key determinants that improve efficiency, ultimately enhancing production and productivity.
Household Food Security State and its Determinant in the Chepang Tribe in Chitwan: An Ordered Probit Analysis
The livelihoods of the Chepang community depend largely on agriculture and natural resources, leaving them highly vulnerable to climate-induced shocks and food insecurity. Despite this vulnerability, empirical evidence assessing food security and its determinants among the Chepang population remains limited, particularly studies that account for varying levels of food insecurity. The present study addresses this gap by evaluating household food security using the widely adopted Food Consumption Score (FCS) and identifying its key determinants through an ordered probit regression model. A mixed-methods design was employed. Data were collected in 2024 from 120 randomly selected Chepang households in Kalika Municipality, Chitwan, complemented by one focus group discussion and five key informant interviews. The findings revealed that 42.50% of households achieved an acceptable food consumption level, while 21.67% were classified in the poor food consumption category based on the FCS. Results from the ordered probit model indicated that the gender of the household head and landholding size were significant determinants of household food security. Female-headed households were more likely to fall into the poor food consumption category (p < 0.05), whereas households with larger landholdings were significantly more likely to attain acceptable food consumption levels (p < 0.01). The study recommends policy interventions that enhance secure land access for asset-poor households and promote gender-inclusive capacity-building programs to strengthen food security and resilience among the Chepang community.
Gender Disparities in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Pipeline in Gandaki Province, Nepal: Enrolment and Faculty Representation
Women remain underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and careers, yet province-level evidence in Nepal is limited. This study examines women’s participation in STEM in Gandaki Province and explores the barriers influencing their entry, retention, and progression. An explanatory sequential mixed-methods design was employed, combining institutional data from 20 STEM academic institutions with purposively selected key informant interviews (n = 10) involving experienced STEM faculty. Quantitative findings indicate substantial variation in female participation across disciplines, with higher representation in health-related fields and lower representation in technical and field-based disciplines. Qualitative findings reveal that, despite increasing enrolment, women continue to face structural barriers, including financial and geographic constraints, gender stereotypes, workplace bias, and the dual burden of professional and household responsibilities. These factors limit not only entry into STEM fields but also long-term retention and career progression. These findings highlight persistent discipline-specific inequalities and underscore the need for targeted, gender-responsive interventions that support not only access but also retention and advancement of women across the STEM pipeline.
Assessing Forest Fire Susceptibility in Bhojpur District, Nepal: A GIS-AHP Integrated Approach
Forest fires have been a major threat to forest ecosystems, as well as human populations, depending on forest. Bhojpur district, which has rich biodiversity and extensive forest cover, faces similar recurrent fires threats during dry season causing ecological and socio-economic losses. However, no detailed fire risk zonation map exists, limiting proactive management. Therefore, this study was required to identify and map areas of varying fire susceptibility to support risk mitigation. A Geographic Information Systems and the Analytic Hierarchy Process was employed to model potential fire risk map through the integration of eleven geospatial variables: Land Use Land Cover, Normalised Difference Vegetation Index, Land Surface Temperature, Slope, Aspect, Elevation, Precipitation, Wind Speed, Topographic Wetness Index, Distance to Roads, and Distance to Population. The consistency ratio was 0.08, and the Area Under the Curve was 0.826, indicating valid and acceptable structural model. 20.72% of the land was classified as high risk, 78.93% as moderate risk, and a tiny portion was classified as extreme or low risk. This map is considered an essential tool for authorities in assessing, analyzing, and formulating risk mitigation, as well as forest ecosystem resilience management strategies.
Factors Predicting Habitat Suitability for the Occurrence of Gaur Using Ensemble Modeling in Chitwan National Park of Nepal
Gaur, a large herbivore native to South and Southeast Asia, supports ecosystem health by enhancing soil sustainability, promoting plant growth, and aiding plant succession. In Nepal, their presence is limited to the protected habitats of two lowland (Terai) protected areas: Chitwan National Park (CNP) and Parsa National Park (PNP). However, information on the habitat factors influencing Gaur occurrence is limited, yet is essential for improving the existing habitats of this keystone species and prioritizing conservation efforts within the protected area. To address this gap, our study used an ensemble modelling approach to predict Gaur habitat suitability and identify key factors influencing their occurrence in CNP, Nepal. To gather data on Gaur's presence points, field-based surveys were conducted in April and May 2021, including periodic censuses and annual monitoring. Their presence was verified through direct observations, identification of pellet droppings, and hoofmarks found within the park. Ensemble modeling identified approximately 183.53 km2 within the CNP as highly suitable habitat for Gaur, representing 2.1% of the buffer zone and 97.9% of the core area. Of the 33 variables used to construct the habitat suitability model, human population density, slope, and livestock density were the most influencing factors. For long-term Gaur conservation, our study recommends prioritizing habitat management by strictly limiting human activities and livestock grazing in the core of CNP.
Bite Incidents and Farmer-Reported Crop Damage by Rhesus Macaques in Lansdowne Forest Division, Uttarakhand, India
Monkeys play a crucial role in the ongoing conflict between humans and wildlife across the globe. This article examines the dynamics of human-monkey conflicts (HMC) within the Lansdowne Forest Division (LFD), drawing on data collected from 2015 to 2018 on reported bite incidents involving rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Descriptive analysis showed that males aged 16 to 35 were more frequently involved in reported bite incidents compared to females of the same age group. Moreover, many respondents reported substantial local crop raiding; farmers reported, perception-based estimates indicate that in some localities approximately 70% of the agricultural lands in the region have been affected by rhesus macaques foraging; these values were not validated by field measurements. Habitat destruction and improper disposal of human waste likely contribute to this conflict. To effectively address these issues, it is essential to develop sustainable strategies that balance the needs of local communities with the imperative of conserving monkey populations.
Diversity and Use of Wild and Non-Cultivated Edible Foods in Raji Community of Karnali Province, Nepal
Our study documents wild and non-cultivated edible foods, their use, status and contribution in livelihoods of the Raji community in Bheriganga Municipality of Karnali Province Nepal. Key Informants interview, focus group discussions, field observations, and individual household surveys were conducted. The use of 74 species belonging to 52 families were identified of which 70 were angiosperms, one gymnosperm and two pteridophytes and one termite mushroom. These species were used as food, medicines, spices and for rituals and income. Among these, 26 species had multiple uses followed by 19 as fruits, 15 as vegetables and 11 as medicines. Among the frequently used vegetable species the use value of Termitomyces albuminosus was found highest (0.97) followed by Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don.) C. Chr (0.94). The informant consensus factor on medicinal plants use was found highest on cuts and wounds (0.90) followed by cough, fever and cold (0.87). Nearly 90% of the households depends for at least one month on these plants during seasons of their availability. The availability of these species has declined over time. Raji people have started in-situ conservation and domestication of some important species like Dioscorea bulbifera L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., however these resources are not given due considerations in local, provincial and national research and development programmes of government and other research institutions.
Antibiogram and Genes Contributing to Virulence in E. coli Isolated From Clinical Cases of Colibacillosis in Broilers
Escherichia coli causes colibacillosis in poultry, leading to significant economic losses through reduced productivity, high mortality, and carcass condemnation. The frequent and often indiscriminate use of antibiotics in poultry production has promoted the emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterial strains, complicating their treatment. This study aimed to determine the antibiogram and virulence genes of E. coli isolated from clinical cases of colibacillosis. A total of 102 E. coli isolates were cultured on Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) agar and subjected to antibiotic susceptibility testing using the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method with 16 antibiotics from 8 different classes. Isolates resistant to three or more antibiotic classes were classified as MDR. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was employed to detect six virulence-associated genes, namely iss, iroN, iucC, cvaC, tsh and yjj. High resistance was observed against enrofloxacin (99%) followed by cefoxitin (90.2%), tetracycline (86.3%), erythromycin (79.4%), amoxycillin (77.5%), doxycycline (76.5%) and ciprofloxacin (75.5%) while greater susceptibility was noted to azithromycin (67.6%), followed by ceftriaxone (65.7%), norfloxacin (53.9%) and amikacin (51%). Overall, 82.3% of isolates were detected to be MDR. Among virulence genes, yjj (58.82%) was the most prevalent. Besides, iss, iroN, iucC, tsh and cvaC were PCR positive in 48.04%, 45.10%, 31.37%, 19.61% and 10.78%, respectively. The coexistence of multiple virulence-associated genes in Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) isolates with a high multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index indicates high selection pressure on broiler farms. This could be a cause for the antibiotic therapy failure, commonly encountered in the broiler farms of the sampling areas.
Evaluation of Early Growth Traits and Herbage Biomass Production of Selected Oat Genotypes Under Different Sowing Dates
Early growth traits are important indicators of plant vigor and potential herbage yield. Lack of knowledge on how early growth traits respond to different sowing dates and their influence on herbage biomass is limiting oat fodder production in the Terai region. Optimum sowing date can enhance livestock feed availability and quality through higher herbage biomass production. The objective of this study was to evaluate early-stage growth attributes and herbage yield under different sowing dates. A field experiment was conducted using a two-factor factorial randomized complete block design with four replications at Rampur, Chitwan. Four oat genotypes (Nandini, Amritdhara, Swan Pak, and Longford) were sown on three dates: 1 November, 15 November, and 30 November. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed among genotypes and sowing dates for all the studied traits. Nandini, Swan Pak, and Amritdhara showed the highest tillering, while leaf number and leaf area were greatest at 15 November sowing. Longford had the highest chlorophyll content. Amritdhara produced the highest dry matter yield (2.53 t ha-1), followed by Swan Pak (2.49 t ha-1), with maximum yield observed at 15 November sowing (2.64 t ha-1). Plant height and tiller number contributed most positively to dry matter yield. Sowing Swan Pak and Amritdhara on November 15 holds potential for higher fodder production under the agro-climatic conditions of the Inner Terai region of Nepal. Further multiyear trials are recommended to validate these findings and utilize them in agronomic practices.
Influence of Non-Genetic Factors on Milk Yield and Composition in Jersey and Holstein-Friesian Crossbred Cows in a Commercial Cattle Farm of Chitwan, Nepal
The study was carried out to find out the effect of non-genetic factors on milk yield and milk composition traits of Jersey and Holstein Friesian (HF) crossbred on farm from 2021 to 2023 at Shree Laligurans Dairy Farm and Research Center, Chitwan district of Nepal. Altogether, 2030 daily milk records of 400 lactating crossbred cows (HFX-271, JX- 129) maintained under uniform management were analyzed. Breed, parity, stage of lactation, season of milking, and month of calving were considered as non-genetic factors affecting average daily milk yield and milk composition traits (fat, SNF, and protein) significantly. The least square analysis was performed by using Harvey (1990) software package, and comparison of significant means was done by using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The least square mean and standard error for daily milk yield of Holstein and Jersey crossbred cows in the study were 9.65±0.92 and 9.54±1.20 liters, respectively. The result revealed the non-significant effect of breed on milk yield and fat%, but a significant effect on other milk composition traits such as SNF% and protein%. The overall means for fat, SNF, and protein were 4.56%, 8.68%, and 3.09%, respectively. Furthermore, stage of lactation, season of milking, and month of calving significantly affected both milk yield and composition. Based on these findings, Jersey crossbred cows are better suited for milk yield and composition quality within the sub-tropical agro-climatic conditions of Chitwan. To optimize commercial dairy productivity, it is recommended to synchronize calving and milking schedules with the spring season and keep the best milk-producing cows on the farm for three to six milking cycles (parity) before culling them.
Retrospective Study on Case Flow Pattern at Livestock Service Office, Chitwan, Nepal
A retrospective study of all cases presented at Livestock Service Office (LSO), Chitwan during two fiscal years 2023/24 and 2024/25 was conducted to determine the prevalence of different diseases and abnormalities by species and seasons. During this period a total of 10,111 cases were registered at LSO, Chitwan. Data was collected, processed and analyzed to get meaningful insights. The cases of the canine species (49.25%) were highest among all species followed by cattle (24.31%), buffalo (14.45%), feline (10.45%), porcine (0.16%) and other species (0.2%). The majority of cases were brought for fecal examinations as diagnostic (33%). The internal parasitic infections and season had significant statistical relationship (P < 0.05) with higher prevalence in summer season 27.36% (913/3336). A total of 95.57% (n = 768) of the milk samples were positive for subclinical mastitis using California mastitis test (CMT). Gentamicin (67.74%) was the most sensitive, while penicillin (72.30%) was the most resistant antibiotics. Clinical cases related to integumentary system (22.14%) were most frequently registered among systemic diseases. During summer, 35.45% (n = 1504) of systemic diseases were prevalent. Ehrlichiosis was recorded as the major tick-borne blood pathogen in canine species with prevalence 50.91% (n = 110). A total of 2,392 cases were immunized against rabies, and 830 cases were immunized against DHPPiL (canine distemper, canine hepatitis, canine parvo virus, canine parainfluenza and Leptospirosis) during two fiscal years. The result of this study can be used to develop prevention and control strategies of disease according to season and species, consideration of proper vaccination schedule and deworming schedule.
Ethanolic Extract of the Leaf of Moringa oleifera Lam. as a Potential Anthelmintic Agent Against Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Goats
Moringa oleifera Lam. has been used in different countries to treat parasitic infections in humans and livestock. This study was aimed to investigate the anthelminthic activity of ethanolic extract of Leaf of Moringa oleifera Lam. (EEMO) against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. EEMO was prepared in 100% ethanol by cold percolation and qualitative tests were performed for phytochemical screening. Forty male goats (Egg Per Gram/EPG at least 100) were randomly selected and allocated equally into Negative control (N-Ctrl), Moringa oleifera ethanolic extract (MO-100), MO-200 and Positive control (P-Ctrl). The goats of MO-100, MO- 200 and P-Ctrl groups received orally MO extract @ 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and albendazole 10 mg/kg body weight, respectively whereas normal water was provided to the goats of N-Ctrl group. EPG count was assessed by Mc-Master technique followed by FECR% (Fecal egg count reduction percentage) on day 0, 3, 7, 14 and 28. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of saponin and flavonoid. EPG decreased and FECR% increased in both extracts treated groups on the dose dependent manner on day 7-28. The highest FECR% were observed with MO-100 (77.03±7.54) and MO-200 (91.83±2.26) on day 28. Therefore, our study has shown that MO @ 200 mg/kg has sufficient anthelmintic activity against gastrointestinal nematodes in goat.
Epidemiology of Zoonotic Gastrointestinal Helminths in Stray and Pet Dogs of Dhangadhi, Nepal
Dogs act as reservoirs of zoonotic gastrointestinal helminths, posing a significant public health risk. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Dhangadhi City, where fecal samples from 400 dogs (200 pet, 200 stray) were examined for gastrointestinal helminths. Of all samples, 173 (43.25%) fecal samples showed the presence of at least one parasite. Stray dogs showed a significantly higher prevalence (p<0.001) of helminths (63.5%) than pets (23%). The zoonotic helminths identified included: Ancylostoma spp. (19.25%), Toxocara spp. (18.50%), Taenia spp. (5.75%), and Dipylidium spp. (9.75%). The helminth prevalence was slightly higher (p>0.05) in pet dogs under 1 year (25%) compared to those over 1 year (22.4%). Single helminth infection was statistically significantly (p<0.05) higher (77.45%) than concurrent mixed infection (22.54%). Helminth prevalence was slightly higher (p>0.05) in male dogs than in females. The prevalence of zoonotic helminths was statistically significantly greater (p<0.05) in nondewormed dogs (73.9%) than in dewormed dogs (16.4%). Helminth infection was strongly associated with deworming history. The KAP survey response suggests most dog owners (88.5%) are aware of the zoonotic risk associated with dogs, and deworm their dogs within 3-6 months. Significant associations were found between gastrointestinal helminth infection and both playing behavior (p<0.05) and deworming practice (p<0.001). However, no statistically significant association was observed between the presence of helminth infection and zoonotic awareness, rearing system, and veterinary consultation practices. Responsible ownership and routine deworming practices should be followed to minimize the public health risk associated with zoonotic helminths of dogs.
Efficacy of Single Shot GnRH versus CIDR-PGF2α-GnRH-FTAI Protocol for the Treatment of Postpartum True Anestrus in Dairy Cattle
Postpartum true anestrus is a major cause of reduced fertility and production, particularly in high-yielding crossbred dairy cows. Hormonal interventions under proper nutrition and management can restore reproductive function. This study compared two hormonal protocols for treating postpartum true anestrus in dairy cows. Forty-five postpartum anestrous cows were examined by transrectal palpation and ultrasonography to classify them as true anestrus or silent estrus. Among these, 73.3% had true anestrus and were included in the treatment trial (n=33). In treatment 1 (GnRH, n=13), cows received a single intramuscular injection of buserelin acetate (20 μg). In treatment 2 (CIDR-PGF2α-GnRH-FTAI, n=20), a CIDR device containing 1.9 g progesterone was inserted on day 0 and removed on day 7, with PGF2α (cloprosterol 500 μg) injected at removal. GnRH (20 μg) was administered on day 9, followed by fixed-time artificial insemination on day 10. Estrus induction rate did not differ significantly between GnRH (53.9%) and CIDR-PGF2α-GnRH-FTAI (60%) groups. The interval from treatment to estrus was shorter in the CIDR-based group (61.0±10.2 h) than in the GnRH group (163.7±36.0 h). Pregnancy rate tended to be higher in CIDR-PGF2α-GnRH-FTAI (55.0%) than in GnRH (23.1%, P=0.07). Cows with good body condition score (BCS) had higher pregnancy rate than those with poor BCS (P=0.05). Other factors, including milk yield, endoparasitic infection and anemia, had no significant effect. Single-shot GnRH was as effective as CIDR-PGF2α-GnRH-FTAI for estrus induction, while the CIDR-based protocol shortened the interval to estrus and tends to improve pregnancy outcomes.
External Pelvimetry of Cattle and Buffaloes and its Association with the Incidence of Dystocia
Pelvimetry is the measurement of dimensions of bony pelvis for the assessment of pelvic area. The objectives of this study were to determine the pelvic dimensions of cross-bred cattle and buffaloes using non-invasive external pelvimetry and to understand the association of pelvic dimension with the incidence of dystocia. Total 111 cows and 58 buffaloes were included in the study. Distances between two hook bones, two pin bones and that from top of the croup to the level of hip joint were measured using a measuring tape and scale; the established formulas were used to determine the transverse and conjugate diameters, mean diameter and area of the pelvic inlet. Body weight was estimated using a Shaeffer’s formula by measuring heart girth and body length. Conjugate diameter and pelvic area to body weight ratio (PA:BW) were found to be significantly lower in dystocic animals than in non-dystocic ones. Pelvic area was additional significant parameter in dystocic buffaloes. Conjugate diameter was significantly associated with higher odds of dystocia. There was a tendency that male calves had 6.23 times greater odds of causing dystocia than female calves. This study documented pelvimetric data and its association with dystocia in cross-bred cattle and buffalo in Nepal, which could be an important selection criteria in breeding programs.
Assessment on the Status and Prospects of Goat Farming in Khajura Rural Municipality
Goat farming is a key livelihood source in Nepal’s rural areas, yet systematic evidence on its status and constraints at the local municipality level remains limited. This study assessed the current status and future prospects of goat farming in Khajura Rural Municipality, Banke district, conducted from March to June 2025. Using simple random sampling, 95 goat-rearing households were surveyed through semi-structured interview schedules. The study found that semi-intensive farming (88.40%) and crossbred goats (26.34%) were dominant. The three most critical production constraints were inadequate nutrition management (index = 0.83), unavailability of quality breeds (0.80), and market instability (0.78). Economic analysis revealed a benefit-cost ratio of 1.22 and a net profit of NRs. 28,014 per farm, confirming financial viability. Despite limited access to government subsidies (3.15%) and formal training (13.70%), 92.60% of farmers expressed willingness to expand, indicating strong commercialization potential. Targeted policy support, capacity-building interventions, and market stabilization mechanisms are recommended to unlock this potential.
Does Foreign Direct Investment Boost Agribusiness? A Systematic Literature Review with a Focus on Nepal
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is an essential catalyst for transforming agribusiness in developing economies through capital injection, technological circulation, and enhanced market connectivity. Despite agriculture’s central role in Nepal’s economy, FDI inflows into the sector remain limited and inconsistent. This systematic review synthesizes evidence from studies published between 2000 and 2024 across databases such as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and JSTOR to examine how FDI influences agribusiness performance globally, with a special focus on Nepal. Following the PRISMA framework, a total of 26,010 records were initially identified, of which 19,991 were shortlisted after applying date and language filters, screening based on inclusion criteria and removal of irrelevant studies, and 35 studies were included in the final synthesis. Drawing upon Spillover Theory, Linkage Theory, and Dependency Theory, the review analyzes policy evolution, sectoral trends, and empirical experiences from countries including India, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Mozambique. Findings indicate that while FDI can enhance productivity, strengthen value chains, and promote commercialization, its impact is highly dependent on regulatory clarity, institutional capacity, land governance, and the host country’s absorptive ability. In Nepal, policy bottlenecks, land-use restrictions, weak coordination among government units, and inadequate monitoring have constrained potential benefits. Significant evidence gaps remain, particularly regarding project-level outcomes, environmental implications, and long-term developmental effects. The review concludes that maximizing FDI’s contribution requires coherent policy reforms, enhanced institutional mechanisms, improved data systems, and targeted incentives for responsible and inclusive investment.
Urovagina in Dairy Cattle: A Clinical Overview
Urovagina is the pathological condition in which the urine accumulates into the floor of cranial vagina. Its prevalence in dairy cows and impact on fertility has been sparsely investigated in comparison to that in mare. The cases of urovagina in dairy cows have been increasing and this condition appears to be one of the important causes of infertility through conception failure, repeat breeding and embryonic loss. The prevalence of clinically relevant urovagina in Holstein cows across various countries ranged from 3.1% to 15.4%. Major risk factors of urovagina involve multiple parturition, low body condition score, horizontal vulva, cranio-ventral pelvic displacement and postpartum endometritis. Mild cases can be managed by improving body condition and vaginal douching, whereas moderate to severe cases often require surgical correction, such as urethral extension, flap-based techniques, or vestibulovaginal cerclage. Early diagnosis and targeted intervention are critical to restore normal urine flow, prevent uterine damage, and improve conception rates, thereby enhancing overall reproductive efficiency in affected cows. This article highlights the etiology, risk factors, prevalence, diagnosis and impact of urovagina and its treatment approach in dairy cattle and its management.
Follicular Dynamics and Hormonal Regulation during Physiologic Breeding Season in Cyclic Mare
This review synthesizes published information regarding equine follicular dynamics and endocrine regulation throughout the normal estrus cycle with a particular focus on follicular emergence, deviation, dominant follicle selection, preovulatory maturation, and ovulation. Literature was compiled from peer-reviewed journal articles, reviews, and equine reproduction textbooks concerning ovarian follicular development and hormonal regulation in mares during the breeding season. Available evidence suggests that there is a transient surge in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) driving a cohort of 6 mm follicles to grow together at roughly 2.8 mm daily prior to the onset of deviation occurring when the largest follicle reaches ~22 mm in major follicular waves, which is followed by a decrease in circulating FSH and an increase in intrafollicular insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) activity, estradiol, inhibin, and luteinizing hormone (LH) responsiveness. The next steps of maturation of the dominant follicle (growing at rate of 3mm per day), competency of the ovulatory follicle (reaching a plateau of approximately 40-45mm) and induction of ovulation involve a coordinated interplay of gonadotropins, ovarian steroids and local intraovarian mediators. An understanding of these physiologic interactions is of direct clinical importance in the fields of estrus detection, timing of ovulation, reproductive ultrasonography, breeding management, and clinical decision making in the field of equine theriogenology.