Journal of Institute of Science and Technology
Journal of Institute of Science and Technology (JIST) is a peer-reviewed multidisciplinary science journal published by the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University (TU), Kathmandu, Nepal.
Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University
The views and interpretations in this journal are those of the author(s). They are not attributable to the Institute of Science and Technology, T.U. and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers of boundaries. The copyright of the articles is held by the Institute of Science and Technology, T.U.
PLANT BASED ETHNOVETERINARY PRACTICES IN MIDDLE MOUNTAIN REGION, CENTRAL NEPAL
Ethnoveterinary practices have long served as an important approach to managing the health of domestic animals in rural parts of the country. The main objective of this study was to document local knowledge on the use of various plants for treating livestock diseases in Konjyosom Rural Municipality, in the middle mountain region of Central Nepal. The primary data were collected by interviewing 90 informants who were rearing the domestic animals like cow, buffalo and goats. The study recorded 76 ethnoveterinary plants from 45 families and 71 genera, with Poaceae being the most prevalent family. These plants, primarily herbs, were often sourced from the forest, with leaves being the most dominantly used part. Notably, raw application was the preferred method for treating livestock diseases. Dermatological and gastrointestinal ailments had the highest Informants Consensus Factor, indicating a strong agreement among informants. Cannabis sativa, Artemesia indica, and Ficus religiosa were among the most frequently cited plants having highest Relative Frequency of Citation. Such traditional knowledge not only aids in livestock health but also contributes to plant diversity conservation. Documenting such practices is crucial to preserving this knowledge and further research into the bioactive compounds of these plants could help in the formulation of drugs for future use.
Copyright (c) 2026 Institute of Science and Technology, T.U. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
INSAR-BASED CO-SEISMIC DISPLACEMENT MAPPING OF THE 2023 JAJARKOT EARTHQUAKE (MW 5.7) USING SENTINEL-1A IMAGERY
On November 3, 2023, Jajarkot district in western Nepal experienced a Mw 5.7 earthquake. The region is seismically active and lies along the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT). Various slope failures and damages to many masonry structures were reported representing the effects of surface displacement. This study presents the first co-seismic surface displacement analysis of moderate-magnitude earthquake in western Nepal using Sentinel-1A Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data processed through Interferometric SAR (InSAR) workflow. For data processing, Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP) and SNAPHU were employed followed by displacement decomposition in ArcGIS 10.4. The east-west displacement (DEW) ranged from 0.3514 m to -0.2210 m, while the vertical displacement (DV) varied between 0.4149 m to -0.5149 m. The total ground displacement magnitude was approximately 0.5437-0.5603 m. These findings show that even a moderate-magnitude earthquakes in the Himalayan terrain can produce significant and measurable displacement which highlights the effectiveness of InSAR in post-seismic hazard assessment for remote, data-scarce regions of Nepal.
A LIMIT LAW FOR SUMS OF STOPPING TIME INDEXED SIGNUM FUNCTIONS
A variety of limit laws describing the asymptotic behavior of functions have been developed in mathematics and statistics, among which the law of the iterated logarithm is considered one of the most significant. Motivated by these foundational results, we establish a LIL for sums of signum functions indexed by stopping times and determine a precise upper bound for the associated limit law.
DFT STUDY OF ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES, SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS, AND THERMODYNAMIC PARAMETERS OF CLEOMIN
Cleomin, a saturated heterocyclic and nonlinear organic molecule of pharmacological importance, yet it’s structural, electronic, and thermodynamic properties have not been adequately characterized at the molecular level. In this study, density functional theory calculations were performed at the B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p), WX97XD/6-311++G(d,p), and WX97XD/6-31++G(d,p) levels of theory, supplemented by a potential energy surface scan to understand the conformational stability of the Cleomin, whereas B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) basis set was employed to examine the electronic behavior and thermodynamic properties of Cleomin. The optimized geometry of the Cleomin revealed a stable configuration with no imaginary frequencies. Non-covalent interaction - Reduced density gradient analysis identified dominant van der Waals interactions alongside weak hydrogen-bonding and steric repulsion within the ring system. The electron localization function and localized orbital locator maps showed a strong electron localization of electrons at hydrogen and sulphur atoms and the spatial distribution of bonding regions and lone pairs. The molecular electrostatic potential mapping showed electronegative regions around S1 and O2 as electrophilic attack sites and electropositive regions near nitrogen-bonded hydrogen as nucleophilic attack sites. Frontier molecular orbital analysis yielded an energy gap of 5.23 eV, confirmed by the density of states spectrum, indicating chemical stability and low reactivity. Mulliken charge analysis identified S1 and H17 as the primary reactive centers. Natural bonding orbital analysis revealed strong hyper-conjugative interaction from N3[LP(1)] to S1-C9(σ∗) with a stabilization energy of 68.90 kcal/mol, and Fukui function analysis clearly distinguished sites for nucleophilic and electrophilic attack. Vibrational wavenumbers showed excellent agreement with reported FT-IR data, and thermodynamic parameters (i.e., Specific heat capacity, Entropy and Enthalpy) increased consistently with rising temperature. These findings offer a valuable foundation for the potential applications of Cleomin in drug design and medicinal chemistry.
Ab INITIO STUDY OF Hf2InN MAX PHASE: STRUCTURAL, MECHANICAL, DYNAMICAL, ELECTRONIC, MAGNETIC, AND OPTICAL INSIGHTS
As MAX phase compounds combine the properties of metal and ceramics, they can be used in a variety of applications. In this work, we explored the structural, mechanical, dynamical, electronic, magnetic, and optical properties of the Hf2InN MAX phase compound using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The GGA-PBE functional was used for all computations, taking into account the exchange-correlation effects. The structural properties of Hf2InN MAX phase were examined by calculating its ground-state energy, lattice parameters, and bond lengths between the atoms. The compound was found to have a minimum ground-state energy, which indicates that Hf2InN is a structurally stable compound. The absence of negative frequency values in the phonon dispersion curve confirms that the material is dynamically stable. The value of the elastic constants, which satisfy Born’s stability criteria, suggest that the compound is mechanically stable. Furthermore, the bond stretching, hardness, brittleness, and anisotropic nature are confirmed by the analysis of the material’s mechanical parameters. The electronic band structure and density of states (DOS) plots were analyzed to study the electronic properties. These plots indicate that Hf2InN exhibit metallic behavior. From the analysis of total density of states (TDOS) and partial density of states (PDOS) plots, the distributions of up- and down- spin states were found to be symmetric, confirming its non-magnetic nature. The optical properties of Hf2InN are predicted through the analysis of its dielectric functions, refractive index, extinction coefficient, reflection coefficient, absorption coefficient, and energy loss function. The results show that the material exhibits strong light absorption, distinct energy loss peaks, high reflectivity, and significant optical anisotropy in the UV region, indicating its potential applications in optoelectronic devices, radiation shielding, UV absorption coating, and high temperature materials.
SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION, EGFR DOCKING, AND ANTICANCER EVALUATION OF ISATIN DIMETHYL MORPHOLINYL THIOSEMICARBAZONE AND ITS COPPER(II) COMPLEX
Isatin-4-(2,6-dimethyl morpholinyl)-3-thiosemicarbazone (Istdmpln), and its copper(II) thiosemicarbazone (Cu-istdmpln) were prepared and analysed using CHNS analysis, mass spectrometry, NMR, UV-Vis, FTIR, EPR spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Copper(II) thiosemicarbazone exhibited mononuclear square planar geometry with ONS linkage of thiosemicarbazone and a chloride ion. The absence of chemical shift (δ) at 4 ppm confirmed the formation of ligand in thione form. The shift of IR band corresponding to N–N toward higher energy and that of C=O and C=N toward lower energy confirmed the chelation of thiosemicarbazone to copper(II) ion. The Cu(II) complex exhibited significantly higher cell growth inhibition property than its ligand against both cancer cell lines (IC50; 13.01 µM, HCT116 and IC50; 31.19 µM, MDA-MB-231). The free ligand in aforementioned cell lines exhibited anticancer activity with the higher micromolar concentration (IC50; 34.64 µM, HCT116 and IC50; 43.99 µM, MDA-MB-231). The IC50 bar diagram showed that the Cu(II) complex is about 3 and 1.5 times more potent than the free ligand toward HCT116 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells, respectively. Additionally, both ligand and copper(II) complex showed low toxicity toward normal embryonic kidney cell (HEK293) with IC50 15.39-16.72 µM. Molecular docking analysis showed that both Istdmpln and Cu-istdmpln are effective in inhibiting the EGFR protein with the significant binding energy (kcal/mol) of -8.1 and -8.9, respectively. The remarkable result of anticancer potency on coordination of ligand to copper(II) ion encourages for mechanistic and in vivo studies of the synthesized compounds.
DESIGN, SYNTHESIS, BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION, AND COMPUTATIONAL INSIGHTS OF 1,2,4-TRIAZOLE-BASED SCHIFF AND MANNICH BASE DERIVATIVES INCORPORATING 3,4,5-TRIHYDROXYBENZOIC ACID
1,2,4-Triazole is a privileged heterocyclic scaffold with various biological activities and extensive pharmaceutical applications. In this work, a series of new Schiff base (5a and 5b) and Mannich base (6a and 6b) derivatives of 1,2,4-triazole incorporating 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid were synthesized via a multi-step synthetic route. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), melting point analysis, UV-Vis, FT-IR, 1H-NMR, and 13C-NMR spectroscopy were utilized to verify their molecular framework. The existence of mixture of E and Z geometric isomers determined by NMR spectral analysis indicated the presence of stereoisomeric diversity in the target compounds. These newly produced compounds were tested concerning their in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic properties. The Mannich base derivatives (6a and 6b) demonstrated enhanced antimicrobial activity, exhibiting inhibition zones of up to 31 mm against Bacillus subtilis and 33 mm against Saccharomyces cerevisiae, surpassing the corresponding Schiff bases and showing responses comparable to ciprofloxacin and itraconazole under the tested conditions. In the DPPH assay, compounds 6a and 5a displayed notable radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 2.350 and 2.962 mg/mL, respectively), although lower than standard ascorbic acid. Brine shrimp lethality assay indicated concentration-dependent cytotoxicity, with LC50 values ranging from 48.39 to 157.90 µg/mL. Quantum chemical calculations (DFT-based geometry optimization, HOMO-LUMO analysis, and molecular electrostatic potential mapping) provided insights into electronic properties and reactive sites. Moreover, ADMET predictions suggested favorable pharmacokinetic profiles and low toxicity risks for most of these synthesized compounds. The present study highlights these triazole-based derivatives as promising candidates for further development in the field of medicinal chemistry.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF EMPIRICAL MODELS FOR ESTIMATING DAILY GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION AT TAPLEJUNG, NEPAL
Accurate knowledge of global solar radiation (GSR) is a fundamental requirement for solar energy system design, climate studies, and environmental modeling. In mountainous regions such as eastern Nepal, the scarcity of long-term measured solar radiation data necessitates the use of empirical estimation techniques. This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of twenty empirical models for estimating daily average GSR on a horizontal surface for Taplejung, a high-altitude region of Nepal. The models were calibrated using locally observed meteorological data, and their performance was assessed through standard statistical indicators, including Mean Bias Error (MBE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Percentage Error (MPE), and the coefficient of determination (R²). The comparative analysis reveals substantial variation in predictive performance among the tested formulations. Advanced multivariable and nonlinear models significantly outperform simpler regression relations. Among all models, the Coulibaly and Ouedraogo model demonstrates the most balanced performance, characterized by near-zero bias, low dispersion error, and the highest correlation strength. The results confirm that Taplejung possesses a notable solar energy potential, with an estimated mean daily GSR of approximately 15.12 MJ m⁻² day⁻¹. The proposed findings provide a reliable framework for solar resource assessment in high-altitude regions of Nepal where direct measurements are limited.
IN SILICO SEARCH OF POTENT PHYTOECDYSTEROIDS TARGETING DIFFERENT CANCER PROTEINS
Cancer remains a major global health challenge, and existing drugs have limited efficacy and adverse side effects. Key molecular regulators such as PARP1, ABL1, and CDK2 represent attractive targets for developing safer and more effective anticancer agents. MDA468 (Breast cancer), HCT-116 (Colon Cancer), CCRF (Leukemia), MDA-MB-435 (Melanoma), HOP-18 (non-small lung cancer), SKOV3 (Ovarian cancer), DU-145(Prostate cancer), and SN12K1 (Renal cancer) are cell lines studied in this paper. 216 phytoecdysteroids were computationally screened against these targets using molecular docking, ADMET profiling, and molecular dynamics simulations (MDS). Among them, Ecdysterone 22-benzoate 25-O-β-D-glycoside (PES 1) exhibited strong binding affinities of –11.3 kcal/mol (3L3M) and –9.1 kcal/mol (8H7H), while E-2-Deoxy-20-hydroxyecdysone 3-[4-(1-β-D-glucopyranosyl)]-caffeate (PES 44) demonstrated affinities of –9.3 kcal/mol (2A0C) and –9.2 kcal/mol (8H7H). Both complexes maintained RMSD values below 2 Å, and ADMET predictions further indicated favourable pharmacokinetic properties and low predicted toxicity. These findings suggest that PES 1 and PES 44 are promising phytoecdysteroid-based inhibitors with potential anticancer activity, warranting further extended simulations and experimental validation for their development into effective and safer anticancer therapeutics.
DYNAMIC RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR 5G NETWORK SLICING USING O-RAN NEAR-RT RIC
Network slicing in 5G New Radio (NR) requires the simultaneous satisfaction of heterogeneous Service Level Agreements (SLAs) for ultra-reliable low-latency communications (uRLLC), enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), and massive machine-type communications (mMTC). The objective of this study is to design and evaluate a dynamic, three-layer radio-resource-management framework, built on the O-RAN Near-Real-Time Radio Intelligent Controller (Near-RT RIC) that meets these three conflicting SLAs concurrently on a shared gNB. At the data plane, three algorithms are proposed: a Weighted Proportional-Fair (WPF) scheduler that maps RIC-issued weights to proportional-fair time windows; a slice-aware pre-processor that estimates per-slice Physical Resource Block (PRB) demand; and a starvation-aware Bandwidth Part (BWP) multiplexer. At the RIC, a heuristic BWP Manager observes per-slice key performance indicators every 100 ms and updates the slice weights through an exponential-moving-average-smoothed proportional update law. The framework is implemented in ns-3 v3.40 with the 5G-LENA NR module, co-simulated with a Python RIC through ns3-gym, and compared against a static-weight TDMA-PF baseline. Preliminary results from a 10-second co-simulation, in which a single gNB serves 5 uRLLC, 10 eMBB and 30 mMTC user equipments across three independent BWPs, show that the dynamic framework attains 100% uRLLC deadline compliance (mean delay 0.49 ms), 100% eMBB throughput success (34.9 Mbps per UE) and zero mMTC packet loss, whereas the static baseline fails all three SLAs. The idealized modelling assumptions and their implications for real deployments are discussed as limitations.
EARTHQUAKE DEPTH PREDICTION IN THE HIMALAYAS USING ENSEMBLE MACHINE LEARNING
This study assesses the potential of ensemble ML methods for earthquake focal depth prediction in the Central Himalaya. The basic catalog parameters (time, location, magnitude) are used from 1964-2024. Four regression models - Decision Tree, Bagging, Random Forest, and Tuned Random Forest were evaluated using a train-test split. Using ensemble methods, tree over fitting was substantially reduced compared to a single Decision Tree (test R² improved from 0.112 to 0.425). However, all R² values remained low that indicating limited overall predictive capability. Specifically, the tuned Random Forest achieved the highest test R² of 0.425. Despite this improvement, all models had a systematic bias of predicting depths shallower than the actual depths and under predicting the events below 80 km reflecting the bimodal seismicity of the region and the different tectonics processes governing crustal and lithospheric earthquakes. The results of the study indicate that catalog parameters alone are not sufficient for reliable depth prediction in this tectonically complex setting. To achieve any meaningful improvement, geophysical variables including crustal thickness, fault geometry and heat flow must be incorporated. Moreover, crustal and mantle seismicity should be modelled separately using a stratified approach.
VALORIZATION OF WASTE MAIZE COBS AS A LOW-COST ADSORBENT FOR ARSENIC (III) REMOVAL FROM WATER
The toxicity of arsenic has drawn a lot of attention to its presence in groundwater resources. In this study, As(III) was removed from aqueous solution using Zr(IV)-loaded modified maize cob (Zr(IV)-MMC). FTIR and XRD analysis confirmed effective modification of maize cob, whereas SEM images revealed surface roughening after Zr loading and EDX confirmed that As(III) was adsorbed onto Zr(IV)-MMC. Zr(IV)-MMC showed a good adsorption capacity (qmax = 43.26 mg/g, pH = 9.0), and with 2M NaOH, the desorption rate could reach 95.24%, making it a promising regenerable adsorbent. The Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second order (PSO) kinetics models provided a good fit to the experimental data. The adsorption of As(III) onto Zr(IV)-MMC was most interfered with by phosphate out of the co-existing ions: sulphate, phosphate, chloride, and nitrate. For the desorption of adsorbed As(III) for regeneration, a 2M NaOH solution proved to be an efficient eluent. This study shows that the low-cost Zr(IV)-MMC adsorbent is an economical, eco-friendly, and effective adsorbent that not only safely eliminates As(III) from water but also enables recycling and reuse of the biowaste.
NICKEL-INCORPORATED CERIUM METAL ORGANIC FRAMEWORK ON NICKEL FOAM: UNVEILING 3D NANOPILLARS ON 3D SUBSTRATE FOR GREEN HYDROGEN GENERATION VIA WATER SPLITTING
For sustainable hydrogen production through water splitting, the rational engineering of economical and effective electrocatalysts/nanomaterials for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is essential. In this work, we describe the logical design and in-situ development of a nickel-doped cerium metal-organic framework (Ni/Ce-BTC@NF) directly on 3D nickel foam (NF), designing a binder-free (freestanding) electrode with a distinctive three-dimensional (3D) nanopillar-like structure. The unique design of a crystalline Ce-BTC framework with evenly dispersed nickel while maintaining the intrinsic rod-like shape upon doping is confirmed by structural and morphological investigations. Electrochemical measurements reveal that Ni doping significantly enhances HER activity in alkaline medium, with Ni/Ce-BTC@NF achieving overpotentials of 108.9 mV and 196.1 mV to sustain 10 mA cm⁻² and 50 mA cm-2, respectively, outperforming pristine Ce-BTC@NF. Excellent durability is demonstrated by the material’s steady activity throughout a 24-hour time of continuous operation. The Ni/Ce-BTC@NF (−) // RuO2@NF (+) electrolysis configuration exhibits competitive total water-splitting performance requiring 1.67 V (cell voltage) at 10 mA cm-2. This research offers a viable method for designing cerium MOFs-based electrocatalysts with hierarchical topologies and modulated electronic structures for effective hydrogen generation.
INVESTIGATION ON ANTI-CORROSIVE CONSEQUENCES OF LITSEA MONOPETALA (ROXB) PERS LEAF EXTRACT ON MILD STEEL IN SIMULATED INDUSTRIALLY POLLUTED CONCRETE ELECTROLYTE
Outstanding compressive and tensile forces make reinforced concrete systems versatile and popular in construction and technology engineering. Preliminary corrosion damage of reinforcing mild steel (MS) in sulfate-polluted environments in industrial (IndE) areas is becoming a significant problem. This investigation examines for the first time the anti-corrosion efficiency and mechanisms of reinforced MS rebars in simulated concrete pore solution (SCPS, a mimic of the concrete matrix) with 500-2000 ppm leaf extract of Litsea monopetala (Roxb) Pers (LmL), which has a pH of around 12.5±0.5, providing insight into concrete corrosion preventive strategies. To assess the anti-corrosion efficiency and mechanisms of LmL on mild steel (MS) rebars, potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectrometry (EIS), and adsorption isotherm methods were utilized at 30 °C. This evaluation included LmL characterization techniques such as screening tests, UV-Vis spectrometry, FTIR, GC-MS spectrometry, and toxicity analysis. The results showed an anti-corrosion efficiency of 79.77% based on corrosion current (IEicorros) from Tafel plots, and 62.82% based on the Ipeak from CV (IEIpeak), and 97.63% based on the EIS method (IERct) at a concentration of 2000 ppm of LmL in SCPS under IndE (SCPS-IndE) at 30 °C. These findings suggest that 500-2000 ppm MaL significantly improved the corrosion-resistant behavior of MS in simulated concrete systems under sulfate-polluted industrial environments. The secondary metabolites in LmL, primarily flavonoids, alkaloids, and carboxylic and phenolic acids, inhibit both anodic and cathodic reactions, which enhances anti-corrosion properties by forming a passive layer on corroded MS surfaces.
CARBAPENEM-RESISTANT AND METALLO- β -LACTAMASES PRODUCING ENTEROBACTERALES FROM CLINICAL SPECIMENS AT MAHAKALI PROVINCIAL HOSPITAL, FAR WESTERN NEPAL
The emergence of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) is a global health threat, yet data from Sudurpashchim Province, Nepal remains scarce. This study investigated the prevalence of carbapenemase and metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) production among Enterobacteriaceae in this underrepresented region. A hospital based cross sectional study was conducted at Mahakali Provincial Hospital from November 2024 to February 2026 among 385 Enterobacteriaceae isolates Phenotypic carbapenem resistance was determined by disc diffusion while carbapenemase and MBL production were confirmed using modified Carbapenem Inactivation Method (mCIM) and EDTA-modified CIM (eCIM), respectively. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was observed in 55.32% (213/385) of isolates. Phenotypic carbapenem resistance was detected in 3.90% (15/385) whereas 8.57% (33/385) were confirmed as carbapenemase producers by mCIM. MBL production was identified in 3.12% (12/385) of isolates. Statistical analysis revealed a significant association between MDR and all carbapenem resistance markers with all CRE and 91.67% of MBL producers exhibiting an MDR phenotype. This study identifies a significant reservoir of hidden carbapenemase production in Far-Western Nepal. Mandatory integration of low-cost phenotypic screening like mCIM is essential for effective antimicrobial stewardship in resource limited provincial settings.
ALTITUDINAL INFLUENCE ON PHYTOCHEMICAL PROFILES AND BIOACTIVITIES OF METHANOL EXTRACTS OF ARTEMISIA VULGARIS
Artemisia vulgaris is a plant of therapeutic importance distributed across a wide altitudinal range throughout Nepal. This study investigates the influence of altitudinal variations on the phytochemical content and bioactivities of A. vulgaris, gathered from three different altitudes of Nepal: Bharatpur (201 m), Lamidada (1396 m), and Daman (2322 m). Aerial parts of the samples were extracted with methanol through cold-percolation and subjected to spectrophotometric evaluation of total flavonoid content (TFC) and total phenolic content (TPC) employing aluminium chloride and Folin-Ciocalteu reagents. Antioxidant potentials were assayed as DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical-scavenging percentage, antibacterial activity via agar well diffusion method (targeting Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli), and toxicity by brine shrimp lethality assay. The results demonstrated significant variations (p<0.05) in the phytochemical contents and bioactivities, increasing with altitude. The highest TFC and TPC were observed in samples from Daman. Correspondingly, the Daman sample showed the strongest antioxidant potency (the lowest IC50 = 58.09 ± 0.04 μg/mL). All the extracts demonstrated moderate toxicity (LC50 < 500 μg/mL), with the sample collected from Bharatpur being the most toxic. Antibacterial activity varied significantly (p<0.05), with the Bharatpur and Daman samples showing relatively greater zones of inhibition (ZOI), particularly against E. coli and P. aeruginosa. These findings indicated that A. vulgaris responds to altitudinal stress by altering its bioactive secondary metabolite production, enhancing its antioxidant and antibacterial properties. The study supports the ethnomedicinal relevance of this species and highlights its potential as a natural source of therapeutic agents.
ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF ESKAPEE PATHOGENS IN HOSPITAL WASTEWATER OF KATHMANDU VALLEY
A collection of ESKAPEE pathogens- Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter species, and Escherichia coli are antibiotic resistant bacteria and commonly found in hospital and municipal wastewater. This study isolated and identified ESKAPEE pathogens from hospital waste water (HWW), tested their physico-chemical parameters and characterized antibiotic resistant profiles. A cross-sectional study was conducted from March 2024 to May 2024 during which nine HWW samples were taken by Grab method from 7 different major hospitals across Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Isolation and identification of pathogens were based on Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. Antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) was performed using Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method. Out of 19 isolates, the most frequently pathogens were E.coli (32%), Klebsiella pneumonia (26%), and Enterococcus faecium (21%). Linezolid (100%) showed the highest effectiveness against Gram-positive bacteria whereas Amikacin (92%), Cotrimoxazole (85%), and Chloramphenicol (85%) for the Gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin (85%) demonstrated the highest resistance, followed by Oxacillin and CO-trimoxazole . The multidrug resistance (MDR) isolates was found to be 42% along with low dissolved oxygen (DO) value. Continuous surveillance and improved wastewater management practices are essential to mitigate the spread of these pathogens and protect public health in Kathmandu Valley and beyond.
CO-AXIAL CYLINDRICAL MODEL FOR TURBULENT AIRFLOW AND LAMINAR MUCUS FLOW IN CONSTRICTED HUMAN LUNG AIRWAYS
In this paper, a two-layer cylindrical quasi-steady co-axial flow model is proposed to study the flow of air and mucus in the constricted human lung airways with a constant thickness of constriction influenced by a time-varying pressure gradient due to mild cough. Mucus exhibits Newtonian behavior in many pathological cases and therefore, in this paper mucus and air both are considered as incompressible Newtonian fluids. Mucus is supposed to be thicker and more viscous than air. The central core is assumed to have a quasi-steady turbulent flow of air while the surrounding mucus layer has a quasi-steady laminar flow of mucus. The model also incorporates the effect of the porosity parameter due to immotile cilia, which form a porous matrix. The study states that the flow rates of air and mucus decrease as mucus viscosity and constriction thickness increase. The study also states that the flow rates of air and mucus increase as the porosity parameter and pressure drop increase. The results obtained in this study compared with the results of various investigators working in related fields are found to be in good agreement.
FISH DIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DRIVERS IN THE BAGMATI RIVER, KATHMANDU, CENTRAL NEPAL
This study examined the spatiotemporal variation in fish diversity and its environmental drivers along the Bagmati River, Kathmandu, Nepal. Fish and water sampling was conducted across five sites during premonsoon, monsoon, and post monsoon on the year 2021-2022 A.D. Physicochemical parameters (Temperature (0C), Turbidity (NTU), EC (µS/cm), TDS (mg/L), pH, Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3), Total Alkalinity (mg/L of CaCO3), DO (mg/L), Free CO2 (mg/L), Chloride (mg/L), Zn (mg/L)) were measured to assess habitat conditions. Diversity indices, including Shannon, Simpson, Inverse Simpson, Pielou’s evenness, Margalef’s, and Menhinick’s indices, were calculated. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) were used to explore the relationship between environmental gradients and species-environment respectively. Spatial variation was found on the fish abundance and diversity however no significant variation was observed between seasons. Upstream site (U1) consistently recorded the lowest abundance (21 - 34 individuals) and diversity (Shannon: 0.98 - 1.08; Simpson: 0.58 - 0.66), whereas far-downstream sites D3 - D4 showed the highest abundance (up to 166 individuals) and diversity (Shannon: 2.68 - 2.88; Simpson: 0.92 - 0.94). Environmental variables varied significantly across sites and seasons (p < 0.05). PCA revealed that the first two components explained 57.73% of the total variance, driven by electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, hardness, and chloride. CCA indicated that fish assemblage structure was strongly associated with temperature (F = 15.54, p < 0.001), electrical conductivity (F = 7.93, p < 0.001), total alkalinity (F = 4.22, p = 0.0025), dissolved oxygen (F = 3.80, p = 0.0031), and free CO₂ (F = 2.90, p = 0.019). Overall, results indicate that fish diversity and community composition significantly varies along the location in the Bagmati River. So, conservation and management strategies should focus on maintaining habitat quality, particularly at upstream sites, to support sustainable fish diversity.
SPATIOTEMPORAL ANALYSIS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS OF PRECIPITATION USING CMIP5 IN MAJOR CITIES OF NEPAL
Climate change has intensified the water cycle and triggered extreme precipitation events that have increasingly affected urban areas, especially where impervious surfaces are rising due to rapid urbanization. This study investigates extreme precipitation events across ten major cities using daily data collected from DHM during 1981 to 2022. The Mann-Kendall test and Sen's slope were applied to assess the precipitation trend, while Surfer software 19.1.189 was utilized for spatial precipitation mapping based on data obtained from 32 stations. For extreme precipitation, seven extreme precipitation indices developed by ETCCD in ClimPACT version 3.1.6 were employed. Results indicate that Pokhara had the highest annual precipitation (5454.26 mm), while Dunai recorded the lowest annual precipitation (750.642 mm). Precipitation displayed an increasing trend for Kathmandu (5. 38 mm yr- 1; P=0.072), Pokhara (0.33mm yr- 1; P=0.965), and Gorkha (0.1mm yr- 1; P=1), whereas Birgunj (-18.88 mm yr- 1; P=0.005) and Illam (-11.85mm yr-1; P=0.0013) showed a significant decreasing trend. Extreme precipitation demonstrated substantial decreases in Illam and Bhadrapur, suggesting a drying trend, while Kathmandu, Gorkha, and Pokhara exhibited increasing trends. Spatially, the average annual and monsoonal rainfall varied at the city scale. CMIP5 model projections (2024-2100) under RCP 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5 scenarios show that future precipitation will likely rise than in the past years. Extreme precipitation events have led to urban pluvial flooding in many cities, and are likely to increase more in the future.
GC-MS PROFILING, ANTIBACTERIAL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES OF NARDOSTACHYS JATAMANSI (D. DON) DC. RHIZOMES COLLECTED FROM TAPLEJUNG, GORKHA AND JUMLA DISTRICTS OF NEPAL
Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. is a highly traded and critically endangered medicinal plant distributed in the high altitudes of Nepal. This study aims to investigate the chemical profile of essential oil from N. jatamansi collected from three different geographical regions of Nepal; Taplejung (NT), Gorkha (NG) and Jumla (NJ) and evaluate their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Greater amount of essential oil was obtained with NT and lesser amount was obtained with NJ. GC-MS analysis of NT revealed the identification of total of 35 compounds. In NG and NJ, 28 compounds in each were identified. Altogether 66 compounds were identified in NT, NG and NJ oil samples. Sesquiterpenes were the major compounds present in all three samples. Seven compounds like calarene, seychellene, α-patchoulene, valencene, 7-epi-α-selinene and patchouli alcohol were common in all three samples. Valeranone (37.42%), cadin-4-en-10-ol (28.07%), and patchouli alcohol (6.09%) were identified as the major components in NT. Similarly, valeranone (40.24%), cadin-4-en-10-ol (29.99%), patchouli alcohol (6.71%) with different composition were the major components in NG. In contrast, dihydrotagetone (21.30%), valencene (16.58%), β-pinene (12.56%), guaia-6,9-diene (10.93%) were the major components in NJ. In antimicrobial assay, only NJ showed activity with inhibition zone of 19.0 mm against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans. NT and NG oils were inactive. Because of the variation in chemical constituents, the oil samples showed different antibacterial activities. In antioxidant assay (DPPH), all the oil samples showed moderate activity.
ASSESSMENT OF DRINKING WATER QUALITY IN GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS OF RAMDHUNI MUNICIPALITY, NEPAL
Access to safe drinking water is essential to safeguarding human health, particularly among school-aged children who are highly like waterborne disease and chemical contaminants. In many government schools of eastern Nepal, groundwater extracted through tube wells serves as the primary source of drinking water. The quality of this water is therefore directly linked to the health and well-being of students, teachers, and school staff. This study assessed the physiochemical and microbial quality of tube-well water in eight government higher secondary schools of Ramdhuni Municipality, Sunsari District, Nepal. Total coliform contamination was detected in 25% water samples, indicating potential microbial risk, although fecal coliform bacteria were absent in all samples. Significant positive correlations were found among electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and total hardness, as well as between selected metals and other water quality parameters. The Water Quality Index (WQI = 76.4) classified the water as category B, suggesting that it is suitable for domestic and agricultural use; however, the presence of heavy metals and microbial contamination raises concerns regarding its safety for drinking. These findings highlight the potential health risks associated with prolonged exposure to contaminated water and emphasize the need for routine monitoring, appropriate treatment systems, and stricter enforcement of water quality standards to ensure the provision of safe drinking water in school environments.
SPECIES COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY OF BRYOPHYTES ALONG THE ELEVATION GRADIENT IN PALPA DISTRICT, WEST NEPAL
Bryophytes are a distinct group of land plants that hold significant ecological and economic value. They form the second most diverse plant group, after angiosperms, yet remain the least explored and recorded. Previous studies have suggested exploring additional areas in Nepal to complete the documentation of the bryoflora. This study aims to document the species composition and diversity of bryophytes, along with environmental variables and soil macronutrients, in the tropical and subtropical bioclimatic zone of western Nepal. The bryophytes were studied quantitatively in 125 1 x 1 m quadrats across five elevation bands (300 to 1500 m asl.) at intervals of ca. 300 m, with five replicates in each band. Within each plot, a range of environmental factors (elevation, bareground, rock and canopy cover, coverage of herbs and bryophytes) were measured along with soil macronutrients (organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium). Altogether, 39 bryophyte species were recorded, with mosses being the most prevalent group. Regression results indicated that bryophyte species richness increases with elevation but decreases as canopy cover and bareground expand. Despite appropriate climatic conditions, the instability of the topography due to frequent landslides minimize the occurrence of bryophytes in the present area.
ETHNOMEDICINAL BELIEF, PRACTICE AND METHODS OF USING OWL IN BUDHIGANGA MUNICIPALITY, BAJURA, NEPAL
The use of ethnomedicine for disease treatment has been practiced since the early development of human civilization. However, traditional ethnomedicinal practices involving owls and their perceived therapeutic roles remain poorly documented and require further scientific investigation. Owls, considered as important predators that help control of pest populations, are also considered valuable indicators of ecological health. The present study aimed to collect traditional knowledge, medicinal beliefs, and practices associated with the use of owls in Budhiganga Municipality, Bajura, Nepal. A questionnaire survey was conducted among 388 respondents in the far western hilly region of Nepal. Among them, only 32 respondents had substantial knowledge regarding the traditional medicinal uses of owls, with the majority believing that owl-derived remedies could be used to treat cancer. Gender-wise analysis indicated that female respondents were more knowledgeable about the medicine. Similarly, age-group analysis found that ³59 age-groups had a high percentage of respondents with that knowledge (p < 0.05). Ethnic-group or caste-wise data revealed that most Brahmins had more knowledge but there was no variation on the knowledge with other ethnic groups. Occupational factors showed that respondents in the civil service had a higher level of knowledge of owl ethnomedicine (p < 0.05). The data showed that elderly citizens had greater faith in traditional medicinal uses and values of owls than younger generations. Various groups of people residing in Budhiganga Municipality, Bajura, Nepal, possess knowledge regarding owls and their traditional medicinal uses. Therefore, we recommend the development and implementation of appropriate policies and awareness programs to educate local communities about the ecological importance of owls and to discourage their use in traditional medicinal practices. Such initiatives would contribute to the conservation of owl populations while promoting sustainable and evidence-based healthcare practices.
VEGETATION PATTERNS IN RELATION TO TOPOGRAPHY AND WATER AVAILABILITY IN DAPCHA WATERSHED OF KAVREPALANCHOWK, NEPAL
Watersheds in the mid-hills of Nepal support diverse forest ecosystems and provide critical ecological services including water regulation and slope stabilization. Vegetation patterns in these watersheds are shaped by interactions among topographic and hydrological factors. This study examined vegetation structure and composition along gradients of aspect and distance from spring sources under the environmental variables such as aspect, elevation, canopy cover, invasive species coverage and human disturbance in the Dapcha Watershed, Kavrepalanchowk, Nepal. Nested quadrat sampling was used to measure vegetation structural parameters including tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH). Abundance of trees, saplings and seedlings were measured from elevations ranging from 887 to 1800 masl across the 37 km² watershed. Species composition pattern in terms of environmental variables was analysed using non-metric multidimensional scaling. The findings revealed significant differences between north- and south-facing slopes. North-facing slopes supported higher species richness (38 species) and Shannon diversity (H' = 2.76) compared to south-facing slopes (18 species, H' = 1.03). Tree density was significantly higher on north-facing slopes (350 stems/ha) compared to south-facing slopes (304 stems/ha). Pinus roxburghii dominated with the highest Importance Value Index (IVI) of 99.04 followed by Schima wallichii (41.07) and Alnus nepalensis (29.78). Distance from springs significantly influenced tree height with taller trees occurring near water sources. Similarly, PERMANOVA test was used to determine the significant drivers affecting vegetation which revealed elevation, canopy cover and invasive species coverage plays a significant role. Regeneration analysis showed that 49.15% of species exhibited fair regeneration while poor regeneration pattern was observed in 33.90%. This study concludes that microtopographic factors, particularly aspect gradient and proximity to water sources in watersheds are key determinants of forest structure and composition.
NEXT GENERATION GREEN BIO-ADHESIVES AS RENEWABLE ALTERNATIVES TO SYNTHETIC PETRO-ADHESIVES
Growing environmental concerns associated with petroleum-based synthetic adhesives, including toxicity, non-renewability, volatile organic compound emissions, and formaldehyde-related health risks, have accelerated the development of sustainable bio-based adhesive systems. This review summarizes recent advances in adhesives derived from renewable resources such as lignin, tannins, proteins, polysaccharides, and vegetable oils. Particular emphasis is placed on adhesion mechanisms, chemical and enzymatic modification, nanotechnology-assisted reinforcement, and self-bonding approaches that can improve mechanical strength, thermal stability, and water resistance. Recent progress in green crosslinking strategies and biodegradable adhesive technologies has expanded the potential application range of bio-based adhesives in wood composites, packaging, construction, furniture, automotive components, and selected biomedical uses. Life cycle assessment studies indicate that bio-based adhesives can reduce fossil resource use, toxicity, and greenhouse gas emissions compared with conventional petrochemical systems; however, these benefits strongly depend on feedstock selection, processing route, formulation, energy demand, and end-of-life scenario. Despite substantial progress, challenges related to outdoor durability, water resistance, cost, raw-material variability, and large-scale commercialization remain significant. Overall, development in green chemistry, material engineering, and biomass valorization suggests that bio-based adhesives are promising candidates for next-generation bonding technologies, provided that their performance and sustainability are evaluated for each specific application.
EXTENSION OF LUR NORM TO FRECHET DIFFERENTIALBE NORM
In this paper, we discuss the extension of norms possessing rotundity properties from a closed, reflexive, and separable subspace of a Banach space to the entire space. We also explore the possibility of extending an equivalent Fréchet differentiable norm defined on a subspace of a reflexive and separable Banach space to an equivalent norm on the whole space, such that the corresponding dual norm is locally uniformly rotund (LUR). This is an open problem in general.
PREVALENCE OF GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES FOLLOWING THE 2015 EARTHQUAKE IN NEPAL: THE ROLE OF WASH FAILURES AND GENDER
The 2015 Gorkha earthquakes severely disrupted water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure in Nepal, placing displaced populations at elevated risk of gastrointestinal (GI) parasitic infections. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of GI parasitic infections and assess associated risk factors among earthquake survivors residing in temporary shelters in Byasi Tole, Bhaktapur. A cross-sectional study was conducted from January to June 2016 among 82 individuals randomly selected from 224 earthquake survivors. Stool specimens were collected in sterile, labelled 25 ml leak proof vials containing 2.5% potassium dichromate preservative and transported to the Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, for laboratory analysis. Each sample underwent macroscopic examination for consistency, color and presence of visible parasites, followed by microscopic examination using saline wet mounts and Lugol’s iodine-stained smears to identify parasitic ova, cysts and trophozoites. Parasites were identified based on standard morphological criteria. WASH practices and knowledge of parasitic infections were assessed through structured questionnaires. GI parasites were detected in 51 of 82 participants (62.2%). Soil-transmitted helminths predominated; Ascaris lumbricoides was the most prevalent species (60.8%), followed by Trichuris trichiura (19.6%) and Entamoeba histolytica (15.7%). Female infection prevalence (77.1%) was significantly higher than in males (51.1%) (χ² = 4.90, p = 0.027). Statistically significant differences in infection prevalence were also observed across age groups (χ² = 51.3, p < 0.001); infection rates reached 100% in children (0–10 years), adolescents (11–20 years) and middle-aged adults (41–50 years). While most respondents demonstrated adequate knowledge of disease causes (79.3%), symptoms (84.1%) and prevention (73.2%), major WASH deficiencies were recorded: 63.4% consumed untreated water, 11% practiced open defecation and deworming prophylaxis coverage was only 15.9%. The high prevalence of GI parasitic infections in this post-earthquake setting is attributable to disrupted WASH infrastructure and low prophylaxis coverage. As Nepal remains highly earthquake-prone, these findings provide a baseline for disaster preparedness planning and future epidemiological studies.
THREE DIMENSINAL STUDY OF ORIENTATION OF SDSS DR-14 u- MAGNITUDE GALAXIES OF REDSHIFT 0.100 TO 0.125
The three-dimensional orientations angular momentum of 105,728 SDSS DR-14 galaxies with redshift ranging from 0.100 to 0.125 are studied in the present article. The non-random effects associated with the orientations of angular momentum in galaxies within the specified redshift range are core objectives to investigate. The evolution of large structure formation is evaluated through three distinct scenarios: the Hierarchy model, the Pancake model, and the Primordial Vorticity model. The two-dimensional observational data-including positions, position angles, and inclination angles-into three-dimensional parameters called azimuthal angle and polar angle of rotation axes. This transformation is accomplished Flin-Godlowskian method (Flin & Godlowski, 1986). The principal work of the study is to establish relation between u-magnitude and the orientation of angular momentum vector. Isotropic curves expected data of are generated by accounting for selection effects and conducting a random simulation that produces 107 virtual galaxies. Three statistical tests: Chi-square analysis, Autocorrelation, and Fourier analysis are used to compare observed and expected results. The comprehensive sample is segmented into ten samples, each with a magnitude range of 0.5. Most of the findings lend support to the Hierarchy model of large-scale structure, which posits that the spin vectors are oriented randomly in relation to a chosen reference plane. An equatorial coordinate system has been selected as our reference. Despite this, localized anisotropies are evident in several samples, suggesting the potential influence of gravitational tidal interactions among neighboring galaxies and an early merging process that may alter the early arrangement of neighboring galaxies.
NUTRITIONAL, PHYTOCHEMICAL, ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIBACTERIAL ANALYSIS OF Ganoderma lucidum
Ganoderma lucidum is widely known for its herbal remedial properties and high nutrient value. This study was conducted to examine the nutritional composition (fat, carbohydrates, proteins, crude fibers, ash, moisture and minerals), phytochemicals (phenolics, flavonoids, tannin, saponin, phytate, terpenoids, lycopene, and β-carotene), antioxidants and antimicrobial activity of G. lucidum. In our study, G. lucidum Philippine strain was cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar, cultivated in a sawdust and rice bran substrate and harvested for the nutritional and phytochemical studies. The mushroom was identified as G. lucidum based on sequence analysis using the BLAST database. The nutritional content analysis showed that G. lucidum contains protein (10.53%), carbohydrates (20.26%), fat (1.32%), moisture (8.56%), crude fiber (7.81%), and ash (4.97%). The presence of copper (0.133 ± 0.003 mg/g), iron (0.059 ± 0.013 mg/g), manganese (0.022 ± 0.002 mg/g) and zinc (0.030 ± 0.001 mg/g) was observed in the sample. The mushroom also had phenolics (544.04 ± 0.07 mg GAE/100g), flavonoids (194.11 ± 0.04 mg QAE/100g), tannin (1275 ± 0.05 TAE mg/100g), lycopene (1.29 ± 0.06 mg carotenoids/g), β-carotene (2.98 ± 0.02 mg carotenoids/g), saponin (130.27 ± 0.04 mg/100g diosgenin), phytate (96.23 ± 0.03 mg/100g phytic acid) and terpenoid (3.4%). The antioxidant activity (IC50) was found to be 154.8 μg/ml. However, the sample did not show any antimicrobial activity at tested concentrations. Based on the findings of phytochemical and nutritional analysis, G. lucidum seems to be a good source of nutrients and antioxidants.
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MULTIPLICATIVE TOPOLOGICAL INDICES OF UNIT GRAPHS ON FINITE COMMUTATIVE RING
We provide and examine the multiplicative atom-bond connectivity index (MABCI) and the multiplicative Randić index (MRI) for unit graphs connected to Commutative rings, specifically for direct products of finite fields. For these indices, we provide explicit combinatorial formulas by applying the H-join decomposition method. A systematic methodology for calculating these indices is established by characterising edge partitions and degree distributions.
ALLELOPATHIC POTENTIAL OF SELECTED INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES (IAPS) OF NEPAL AS BIO-HERBICIDE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS
Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) have raised the ecological and agricultural concern by rapidly spreading from roadside to the agricultural land, forest and rangeland in Nepal. They suppress the native biodiversity and reduce agricultural productivity by producing allelo-chemicals that contribute to their rapid growth and widespread distribution by inhibiting their growth. Despite their negative impact, the practical implication of allelo-chemicals from invasive alien plant species of Nepal as natural herbicide remains underexplored. Weed infestation in croplands incurs significant economic costs, often requiring the use of chemical or bio-based herbicides for management. However, synthetic herbicides are known to cause various environmental and health concerns. Utilization of allelo-chemicals as bio-herbicide from IAPS could be the sustainable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective approach for effective weed management. The objective of the study was to evaluate the allelo-pathic effects of IAPS of Nepal for their potential use as bio-herbicides against agricultural weeds. PRISMA flow chart and guidelines were used and search engine included Google scholar, PubMed, AGORA, EBSCO and ProQuest. Studies published between 2014 and 2024 that investigated the use of any one of the five IAPs- Lantana camara, Chromolena odorata, Pontederia crassipes, Mikania micrantha, or Sphagneticola trilobata which are among world’s hundred worst IAPS, for weed management, were selected for review. Data regarding growth parameter were extracted from 14 reports comprising 35 studies. The data were analyzed using RevMan software, employing SMD and odds ratio for germination and mean difference and % inhibition for root and shoot length. Weed germination, shoot length, and root length showed significant differences across all comparisons with moderate to strong inhibition observed following treatment with extracts from IAPS. IAPS could have the potential to serve as eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic herbicides for effective weed management but field-based validation is required.