Transnational Work Migration of Nepali Youths: The Changing Phenomena and the Context of Achieving Education

This literature-based paper has concentrated on the transnational work migration of Nepali youths. The high poverty, minimum opportunities and shifting nature of the profession of the country and desired options, income differences and feeling of the secured mentality of the migrants have been analysed through the perspective of push and pull model and its continuity through the lens of network theory. Concurrently, the remittances have become a prominent resource for the country and its total share of gross domestic product (GDP) has reached more than 29 per cent. Increasing remittance itself clarifies that the out-migration of Nepali youths is towering and consistent. Escalating abroad migration for work has become a contemporary issue and buzzword. At the same time, foreign employment is amplifying the educational gap. Accordingly, government initiation towards the sector has centralised highly even though it is not sufficient. The fear of ‘brawn drain’ as well as 'brain drain' is broadening and deepening in a rapid pace in general, and the adverse impact of it in the country to some extent is reverberating in particular. Nevertheless, comparatively less work has been done to utilise the achieved skills of the migrated youths.


Introduction
To live a prosperous life, looking better options is a human nature and therefore every person struggles to fulfil such a desire. The desire for a decent life and multiple possibilities on the move make human beings movable from one place to another in order to gain something better than the previous situation. Gupta (2013) has suggested that migration may have diverse reasons, including economic, educational, marriage, trade, work opportunity, army deployment, the motive to live a pressure-free life, resources, or for increasing the living standard and inspiration of delightful future of individual or family.
In the perspective of Nepalese young generations, the trend of abroad work migration has been seen basically for two reasons: one is for fulfilling basic needs, and the other is to increase the quality of living standard. The work opportunity in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations, particularly after the decade of 1970s, worked as a strong pull factor for those youths who were in cyclic poverty. Likewise, some economically emerging East-Asian countries, for instance, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Singapore added such trend for Nepalese youths as alternative work destinations abroad. Obviously, the shifting flow of transnational migration of work seekers broke the traditional work destinations such as in India and its territories. In other words, these days the majority of abroad work aspirants who represent the working class have been centralised in these regions as substantial alternative destinations.
In the present context, the consistent poverty and huge employment crisis in the country are some of the pressing causes that can be considered push factors for them. Consequently, since the last two decades, a significant number of working citizens are flying abroad for jobs. About the growing tendency of work mobility abroad, the Ministry of Labour and Employment (MoLE, 2016) mentions the temporary outmigration of Nepali people for employment has become a vibrant and profound incentive factor in the current century. It further argues that more than 3.8 million permits to work abroad (excluding India) were issued by the government during the 1993/94-2014/15 Fiscal Year, which represents almost 14 per cent of the current population (p. 1). Accordingly, as a foreign earning, the total of 29.1 per cent country's gross domestic product (GDP) has been received in the fiscal year 2013/14 as remittance (Ministry of Finance, 2014). It again suggests that lacking modernisation Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 and professionalisation of the agricultural and industrial sectors in the country, the employment abroad for Nepali youths has become a sole alternative to fulfil their economic necessities. Undoubtedly, at present, the outgoing trend for work of the Nepali working-age generations is becoming a common phenomenon and a strong possibility for fulfilling the majority of problems they face including economic ones.
Despite various factors and causes of migration, in this paper, I have tried to look especially at the current trends of Nepali youths' temporary out-migration for work, migrants and remittances, the changing phenomena in terms of abroad work migrants, foreign employment and impact on educational achievement, and in the same way, the government initiation and the role of stakeholders (recruitment agencies) for temporary work migration/migrants.

Methodology and Theoretical Perspective
This study has been conducted based on the secondary information available in different migration concerning literature. I went through and analysed such literature and tried to connect with short-term work migration of the Nepali working-age generations preferring particularly GCC and some other East-Asian countries. Despite the diverse standpoints of seeing the transnational movement of Nepali youth, I attempted to connect two theories concerning with their relevancy in the current context. To describe and make a conclusion, I have tried to analyse the connected phenomena from the sociological point of view. This paper has linked the push-pull model and network theory of migration for describing the work mobility of the people. The attraction factors of abroad and the continuous scarcity of back home have been attempted to see through this perspective. Fundamentally, push-pull theories view migration at the macro level assuming the role of income and other differences of life-changing opportunity between origin and destination places (Haas de, 2014). Similarly, different agencies and networks as facilitators and connectors of work and life abroad have been tried to link through the lens of network theory. Migrants' networks, as Massey et al. (1994) argue, are sets of interpersonal ties that connect migrants, former migrants and non-migrants in origin and destination areas through ties of kinship, friendship and shared community origin (p. 728). As a social network, the pioneers, for migration aspirants in the origin areas, become connected to migrate towards the destinations where preferable options, as well Temporary Abroad Work Migration of Nepali Youths | 77 Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 as increased chances of strengthening socio-economic aspects of life, are thought to be found (Meeteren & Pereira, 2013). Notably, migration network as a medium of the interrelationship between the work seekers and the pioneers living and working in the destinations can be found as a strong inspirational factor that makes easier and affordable to take such decision for prospective migrants. This fact has become even more relevant these days in terms of Nepali abroad job seekers as various connections are playing a crucial and primary role to work in a foreign country.

Transnational Work Migration: An Increasing Trend of Youth
The working youths' propensity towards various countries for work is drastically high in the present days especially to the GCC and some Southeast Asian countries where they can work and stay based on a contract for the certain period. Besides this, Nepali youths have started thinking beyond these countries even though the portion of replacement is correspondingly low in figure as compared to GCC or other Southeast Asian countries. Alternatively, those countries are South-Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Central Asian countries and some European countries. The emergence of outmigration of the people for different kinds of work has a long history and the exodus of people developed differently. Accordingly, the history of transnational labour migration can be connected to the starting period of the early 19th century and understandably attached to British imperial politics (Graner & Gurung, 2003). The context of contemporary employment of Nepali youths was closely linked to the direct service of the British Empire. As a matter of fact, the opportunities for such kind of works were not created to fulfil Nepali peoples' necessities but it was the reason for a secure and strong British Empire in the region. For this, many young and physically fit youths were attracted or even compelled to assist them as they needed.
Basically, the recruitment process of Nepali youths in the name of so-called Gurkha soldiers into the British India opened and got institutionalised in 1816 as empolyment abroad (Graner & Gurung, 2003). Hence, this initiation became the approved legal root for those Nepali youths who were desperately pursuing a viable way of life to live better or escape from the rampant poverty experienced in the family and social levels. This historical step of out-migration for work became a milestone in the country and or even a rite of passage for those who were looking for an alternative way out to minimise their existing hardship. Over time, the global access of employment Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 opportunities and the minimum economic options of the home country compelled Nepali people to go abroad where they could grasp the various desirable probabilities. Consequently, such tendency got the widespread reality and a fact that determining the majority of youths who are taking transnational work migration as a shorter and easier way to solve the many difficulties including economic ones.
Lack of huge employment opportunity and somehow the political/economic instability of the country are the principal causes of out-migration of Nepali youth. The increasing production of the skilled human resource in the country and the minimum capacity to provide appropriate desired options for such persons who come in the employment market every year is dramatically underpinning this fact in the country. Globally, the employment context of global youth is not in a better position as the data revealed by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2006. The ILO (2006) pointed out that more than one-third of young people in the world are unemployed, have completely left out looking for a job or are involved in work but still living below in the USD 2 per day (identified as working poor). The ILO further noted that worldwide, the global unemployment rate was average of 11.9 % in 2007; it is the three folds higher rate of the youth unemployment rate (ILO, 2008). At the same time, the youth unemployment rate in the developing countries is anticipated to grow from 13.6 per cent to 13.8 in 2017 compared to 2016. This has a greater possibility to lead to longer unemployment that can potentially limit skills improvement, low possibility of employment in the future and the earning capability for many young generations particularly of the underdeveloped nations (ILO, 2017). Admittedly, the situation of youth unemployment rate of Nepal is more terrible, multi challenging than the global and rest of the other advanced countries so far. National Planning Commission's (NPC, 2010) three-year plan approach paper mentions that more than 2.5 million working-age Nepali people are unemployed. Ghimire, Rajbanshi, Gurung, Adhikari, and Thieme (2011) reported that around 30% people in Nepal are unemployed or underemployed, they just work seasonally or partially and each year about to 400,000 people are preparing to get into the labour market. The situation has mirrored the terrible truth of the unemployment rate of the job market in Nepal that uncovers the paucity among the plenty and a profound mismatch between the two components. The mismatch has accelerated due to different factors such as the growth of the economically active

Temporary Abroad Work Migration of Nepali Youths | 79
Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 population and the minimum and shrinking absorption ability of the available limited job market (Chapagain, 2003).
The imbalanced situation of demand and supply of the country in the employment sector, political instability and massive poverty, and the psychological influence (impact of the friends, neighbours or relatives who are working and earning abroad) too somehow pushed youths aboard for work and the multiple options of the foreign countries pulled them accordingly. The large flow of out-migration of the youth to get distinguished opportunities aboard is not decreasing but instead the trend is rocketing high day after day. The MoLE (2014) argues that the number of labour migrants leaving Nepal continued to gradual increase. Since 2001, yearly more than 100,000 work permits have been issued and it rose at 249,051 in 2007/2008. Approximately, at least 1,099 Nepali work aspirants fly out of the country each day (MoLE, 2014). Unquestionably, the continuous and rising out-bound tendency of the Nepali youths justifies the increasing level of the transnational work migration of Nepali youth.  Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 As Figure 1 illustrates, the highest per cent of the migrant workers can be seen in Malaysia which is 29.88%. Qatar and Saudi Arabia have become the second and third destination countries which have represented migrants' per cent 21.57% and 20.37% respectively. Comparatively, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman have been seen the less popular destinations for Nepalese migrants in this period. The percent of work migrants in these three countries is 2.54%, 0.86 and 0.63 respectively. At the same time, 10.62% of the migrant workers went United Arab Emirates (UAE) in the period. In the meantime, Republic of Korea has been becoming a very popular destination for the Nepalese migrant workers since back few years though it has lower per cent (1.32%) of the migrants due to the cause of different system of the selection process of the migrant workers.   Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 cent of the migrant workers than others which is 2.64%. On the whole, these ten districts have covered (36.65%) more than one-fourth portion of the migrants of the country during this period.

Migrant Workers and Remittance
According to the World Bank (2014) data, since 1988, the remittances of the underdeveloped nations has been boosted a 20-fold, which was almost US$ 401 billion in 2012. The contribution of remittance is high and crucial to a country whose economy is import oriented. Most of the Africans, some of the southeast and south Asian countries including Nepal suffered heavily by their weak and fragile economy and then they aimed to bring back remittances sending their people aboard. World Bank (2014) suggests that the foreign currency that comes as remittances in the three development regions is extending in a fast pace and is in increasing level. Those regions are namely East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), South Asia region (SAR), and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It further argues that other many smaller developing nations are dependent hugely on remittances sent by the migrants. For instance, remittances as a share of GDP touched up to 42 per cent in Tajikistan, 32 per cent in the Kyrgyz Republic and similarly, 29 per cent in Nepal.
Remittances can play a vital role for a country of origin. But, this fact has not been acknowledged overwhelmingly, even though the remittance has become a significant helpful source for the receiving country and its people to make living. Remittances, International Organization for Migration (n.d.) points out are the most vital and tangible contributions of migrants to the country of origin. The earned money sent back by the migrant workers is spent by their families to pay for food, education and healthcare, for day to day necessities and to tackle poverty.
As an agricultural country, Nepal's economy massively relies on agricultural activities. However, not surprisingly, peoples' attraction, particularly for new generations into this sector, has been seen notably quite lower as compared to past years and as a result, the working population are expecting excitingly the other professions that are suitable for them according to their skills and qualifications. Central Bureau of Statistics, (2014) suggests that the decreasing data of the agriculture input which has fallen from the share GDP 61% in 1981 to 31% in 2011, whereas the contribution of the service sector jumped significantly from 27% to 48% during the Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 same period. This indicates the decreasing trend of youths' involvement in the sector. It further describes, there was almost 94.35% working-age population were involved in the agricultural activities according to the census of 1971, while in the census of 2011, the involvement in agricultural activities dropped notably to 64.01% from its previous record. The decrease interest and participation of the economically active population in the agriculture sector suggests the shifting involvement of young generation in other areas such as industrial activities (CBS, 2014). Undeniably, this has proved that the declining peoples' involvement in such sector and it has also shown the evidence that the economically active generations have gradually started to move to other stable sources of income.
As remittances, Nepal received more than US$ 6 billion in 2015 which amount is almost a third of country GDP. Similarly, the GDP per-capita increased by 3.2 per cent yearly but at the same time, gross national income (GNI) per-capita ( net remittances receipt included) rose by 4.8 per cent between 2005 and 2015. This shows opportunities available abroad have become essentionally vital for Nepali youths (Shrestha, 2017). Acknowledging the fact, MoLE (2014) argues with the increasing number of foreign migrant workers, the inflow of money as remittances has become a commonly important matter. Clewett (2015) claims that about 29 per cent of Nepal's GDP is covered by the remittances that come from the migrant workers abroad and the Nepalese Diaspora living around the world. Similarly, more than half of the households in some districts in Nepal depend on remittances -which have also supported to grow the local incomes.

Government's Involvement and Policy Provisions
The influence of globalisation has been seen in all areas of the economy including in the employment and labour market structure of the country (Chapagain, 2003). Emerging global market and the systematic policies of the temporary work concept of both the county of origin and destination impacted positively to the Nepali youths on their foreign journey for work. On the one hand, the fewer employment opportunities, below-average income and insecure employment market fuelled them to think the alternate ways. On the other hand, the easiest accesses of work opportunities abroad and high earning compared to the country of origin stimulated to the youths to take a step into strongly and enthusiastically. Currently, according to the prevalent foreign Temporary Abroad Work Migration of Nepali Youths | 83 Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 employment act, the foreign work aspirants either skilled or non-skilled can go, stay and work abroad by taking the official permission recommended by the Nepal Government.
The formal labour administration history of Nepal initiated around 70 years ago. Later on, to monitor and govern, the labour department was established separately in 1971 and the Ministry of Labour in 1981 respectively (Gurung, 2004). Though, before the establishment of such department and ministry, many people had been working in the British companies across the Indian territories as soldiers or in other blue-collar jobs but this was not institutionalised and recorded by the Nepal government or even by the Indian government. It is a fact that still there is no official record of the migrants working in India. Gurung (2004) has mentioned that until the 1980s, the majority of labour migration was associated with India where the system of work permits and passports has not existed. In the meantime, in mid-1980s, however, Nepali citizens started to pursue work in other than the Indian territories such as in the GCC countries. After this, the Nepal government took the initiation to make foreign labour related rules and regulations. Then the government made an effort to institutionalise work migration by implementing laws and at the same time by coordinating with different concerned departments for the sole benefit of the migrants. The efforts of institutionalisation took place positively and noticeably after the opening up the employment market in GCC and some Southeast Asian counties for Nepali youths. Seddon (2005) argues that the labour act made by the Government of Nepal in 1985 has facilitated the arrangements of Nepali migrants to about a dozen prescribed countries, even though the government has not been able to find out an integrated labour export strategy. He further describes that by formulating the labour act 1985, the Nepal government clearly acknowledged and legitimised officially to the abroad labour migration. Accordingly, the word 'overseas' has been described meaning other than the Indian territories. Despite the fact, the effort of government has not become more effective to make better an integrated labour export policy or useful assistance of any kind of required training or support packages for the outgoing migrants (Seddon, 2005). The unified endeavours of the government for the temporary labour migration out of the country (as cited in CTEVT, 2014) was the planned development started in 1956, however, the issues of migration and migrants got due importance after the re-establishment of democracy. Eight development plans, that became the initial development plan which had pointed out some of the problems and challenges of the labour market associated with the Nepalese working class. The labour policy and beginning of reformation incorporated extensively for the abroad work employment and migrants in the Three Year Interim Plan of country. Nepal Institute of Development Studies and National Center of competence in Research (2011) notes that the Three Year Interim Plan forwarded numbers of steps and progress with regards to labour management and employment promotion. These incorporate the establishment of Department of Foreign Employment, protection of workers' rights and defined the minimum wage, established the Foreign Employment Promotion Board, and rescue and relief operations for Nepali migrant workers difficulties within the country and abroad, establishment of Resources Center of Migration, the appointment of Labour Attaches in some of the migrants' destination countries, labour agreements with some of the destination countries and most importantly, formed foreign employment court that will be concentrated to serve migration and migrants issues. Thus, after the decade of 1980s, the government of Nepal has been working in the field of out-migration and migrants, having said that the initiation and improvement still lacking somehow. It is not a deniable fact that the rampant problems and challenges associated with it have been seen in increasing level in recent years, for example, taking more money unnecessarily with the work aspirants abroad, misguidance and misinformation from the agencies and the so-called agents, the minimum awareness about the recommended job and country are some of the blameworthy aspects among the others in the field of migration/migrants.

Recruitment Agencies and Their Role
Seddon (2005) mentions foreign labour migration of Nepal is still greatly depend on such organizations which have been established privately to send human resources abroad for work from which individual make use of their own personal networks or make planning further for their dreamed courtiers through some private-registered human resource agencies, a human resource agency involving for sending workers aboard known as 'recruitment agency' in general. To get permission, the Nepal government has acknowledged and directed the two systems of approval to work abroad:first, personal approval, and second through the agency. A person can get the approval individually from the Department of Foreign Employment if he provided all required documents to the Department. Such as the employer's company profile, the demand of such a post, issued a visa in the name of applying person, for example, are the basic requirement to a person who makes application to be a foreign employee. Work in abroad via an institute is a common practice in Nepal. All agencies working under the Foreign Employment Act 1985 are running directly in private ownership. They have authorisation for searching jobs in foreign countries and provide them workers according to the existing laws. Such institutional effort towards foreign employment took place in particular after the promulgation of the Foreign Employment Act 1985. The fundamental fact is that most of the work aspirants who are willing to go abroad for work make a connection (network) with their friends, relatives or knower about the work and country as well as the recruitment agencies in which they want to apply. This process has made more comfortable and less complicated for employment pursuers to find an agency here in Nepal, job abroad and to settle temporarily in the working place.
The agencies established under the Foreign Employment Act of 1985 have got all the responsibilities and rights to find out jobs in foreign countries and sending the employees in recommended countries and companies under the same act. For this, every agency needs to have an approval of the workers' demand paper concerning company abroad which is a legal requirement of the Foreign Employment Department under the provisions of foreign employment act1985. At the same time, the roles and responsibilities of the agency for abroad employment are becoming reasonably high due to the cause of boosted youths spirits for foreign employment. This has increased the agencies' activities in many senses. At the moment, the commercialization of the recruitment sector has facilitated the route for a booming industry of mediators in both migrants sending and receiving countries (Wickramasekara, 2012). Taking attention on the matters, Ozaki (2012) describes by the cause of potential positive impact of the remittances, Nepal government has emphasised upgrading the temporary overseas migration for work for the sole benefit of country economy and migrants. In this sense, the roles and accountabilities of the foreign employment agencies seem considerably crucial as they are the leading medium of abroad employment provider in the country. Nevertheless, the agencies which are performing the central character of employment in the foreign countries have been criticised due to their exploitative nature to the migrants. Agunias (2012) argues the unfair competition to hold the jobs of the destinations such as Middle East job Market; private recruitment agencies are playing an important role which is bridging the gap between employers/ sponsors and Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 prospective migrants. This includes all the process from apply to settle in a job abroad. Even so, their services may cost more than recommended officially. Majorities of activities of the agencies have been seen profit-oriented. Analysing such a situation, the writer has suggested the necessity of government intervention in their operations. The argument suggested by Agunias (2012) is not irrelevant and illogical in the current context of Nepalese recruitment agencies, despite the fact, the sole intention of the government is crucial to make them responsible and function well for the benefit of whole including migrants.

Temporary Out-migrated Youth and Education
Temporary out bounding practice for work especially the young people from the different parts of Nepal is rising day after day. Among them, most of the youths who are under the age of 30 are more willing to go aboard for work based on a contract. As argued by the Asian Development Bank (2014), the tendency of the young generation's labour migration out of the country based on the contract is growing significantly. According to ADB (2014), daily 1343 foreign job aspirants left the country legally in This trend is making a difference in the educational achievement of the country and irreparable gap on an individual level in terms of gaining further education. Most importantly, Nepali out migrated youths are generally considered the low skilled worker and having a minimum academic record in comparison with other countries' migrant workers. As I mentioned different data above, most of the youths working in foreign countries as migrants workers are between the age groups of 15 to 24 which age is generally considered the highest fruitful time to attend a school or higher education. Ironically, abroad work is apparently diminishing the young generations' education aspiration. It is happening because most of the youths are forced to become a breadwinner as they have almost less possibility to make their living at present instead of seeking for education for the upcoming future. By the reason of temporary work of abroad, many of the working-age youths have been discontinuing their formal education. For example, some of the topmost migrants sending districts of Nepal (Mohattari, Siraha, and Sarlahi) are displaying lower performance in terms of education. The mentioned three districts have fewer numbers of school-going young and similarly, escalating the high school-drop-out rate due to the cause of foreign employment (MoLE, 2014). It is not a deniable fact that out-migrants have contributed significantly to the country as estimated about 29 per cent of the total GDP of the country is fulfilling from this sector at the moment. But at the same time, a big portion of the new generations have lost higher education or dropped out in the middle due to the cause of their absence in the country or by the reason of the growing tendency of easier access of job market abroad. This has become a big challenge and forthcoming question to solve to the country that cannot be fulfilled straightforwardly and shortly in coming days. The NPC (2014) notes that a significant number of youth populations are regularly moving abroad to various destinations of the world for work. Therefore, the Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 absent population of Nepal has been seen as a major threat from the perspective of demographic, social and economic to the country.
As a matter of fact, the missing population of these age groups will impact adversely for achieving an educational goal to the country as well as to the new generations at the individual level. It is because the said age is the foundation and most vital to gain higher education.

The Changing Situation of Nepali Youths' Outmigration
Migration history is as old as like humanity. During the last decades, it increased its motion and value as well as complexity concurrently (Murrum, 2008). Going abroad for work is not guiding only by the choice of an individual but it is the comprehensive coordination of the family and social entities that are the stronger and intrinsic parts of the out-bounded youths of Nepal. They have a greater motive to achieve and burden simultaneously to take such a step. Munz (2013) suggests that when migrants move, most of them have been able to make their economic condition better, access to education and personal safety. Therefore, it can be assumed that in most of the situation the transnational migration and mobility usually are the prompt and shorter way to accelerate migrants' welfare and opportunities.
The out moving tendency of Nepali citizen as migrants has a long history and different purposes as well. Accordingly, the Nepali peoples' movements have different phases as the migration caused by the distinguish reasons and aims. Earlier, the destination of out-migration of Nepali people was not far than India or from the nearest countries. Rahman and Yong (2015) mention the early wave of Nepali people's movement started from the Sikkim (Now a province of India) and Bhutan, the first Nepalese migrants are believed to be the group of soldiers and workers who went to work for British-India during the mid-nineteenth century. The recruitment of the Nepalese people as British soldiers can be taken as a second wave of out-migration for work of Nepalese people. The third wave began during the 1970s; when the GCC regions, Southeast countries, Europe and North America opened the door for foreigners (Rahman & Yong, 2015). Realising the classification of Rahman and Yong (2015), I considered the fourth wave of out-migration of Nepali people started with the demand of workforces from the different countries of the world and worldwide permission for work and overwhelming acknowledgement of such act of the people by the country. In the current context, the temporary out-migration of Nepalese youths for various works is covering worldwide as the government has allowed to work and stay in more than 140 countries of the world. The tendency of people temporary work migration has shown that the transnational movement of Nepalese people has been shifting differently according to the nature of work and purpose.

Conclusion
Nepal has become a source country of workforces for many nations of the world especially for the Middle East and some Southeast Asian countries. Many of the Nepalese youths have gone in such countries for work or willing to go in the near future for the same purpose. The vast majority of working generations' inclination out of the country has multifarious causes in it. However, the consistent poverty, minimum opportunities in the home country, distinguish life chances, income differences and comparatively secure life abroad are those some of the pressing factors that are working as push and pull for them. Likewise, the tendency of people migration is also diversifying and expending too. Expending and widening work journey of the young generations has been accelerating even noticeably due to the cause of correlation and get in touch with migrated and work desires abroad. In this sense, network in different countries has become the easiest option and medium to make their future career out of the country. Undeniably, work migration out of the country to the economically vulnerable has become an intrinsic part of their lives and its impact has been seen on their social, economic as well as other fundamental aspects of life such as education. Simultaneously, the Nepal Government is paying attention towards foreign employment and has made various legal provisions too to make it fair and systematic. However, on top of that, the efforts that made by the government have not been able to address appropriately because of the continuous unscrupulous practices of some stakeholders (Recruitment agencies) and lack of strong commitment of the government.
According to ADB (2014), youth's out-migration ratio was 1343 per day in 2013. This indicates a high inclination of youths towards abroad work migration which is alarming. The political instability of the country, socio/psychological circumstances of the youths, the free movement of the economic activities globally are such others factors that cannot be ignored. Interestingly, the work opportunities abroad, particularly in the Middle East and Southeast Asian countries, have created plenty of possibilities to Journal of Education and Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2019 address their economic problems but more precisely the physical absence of the youth from the country is becoming a complicated issue and an additional challenge as well. The rising issue is brawn drain as well as brain drain which could have been used for the development of the nation differently and dynamically. Besides, concurrently the out-migration trend of youths has generated a terrible gap in higher educational achievement.
As international temporary work migration is becoming an essential need for living for many; it is necessary to see and work differently and contextually, too. It is because the globalization and liberal market policy of the contemporary world have created easier access and the borderless opportunity for both national and as well as at an individual level. The growing free movement for people, a convenient situation of the working environment around the world and high earning probability cannot be minimised in the sense of people employment abroad. The internal and external circumstances have justified the situation of push and pull for work seekers. In the same manner, network among and between migrated and work aspirants in the origin places is motivating and also working as a vital way of the perpetuation of work migration. Therefore, in this situation, the country has a greater possibility to change the anxiety of human resources drain into gain by utilising various achievements of the out-migrated youth.